jharkhandexam.in

Wings To Fly!

Tag: Jharkhand Current Affairs 2025

  • “Major Tribal Rebellions of Jharkhand: A Detailed Analysis of History, Causes and Impacts”

    ❖ Etymology and Meaning of the Word “Sadan”

    • Derived from ‘sad’, meaning:
      • To sit, reside, or assemble.
    • Other associated meanings:
      • Sadya – immediate, new, fresh.
      • Sad – good, true.
    • Sadans are considered:
      • The first settlers of Jharkhand.
      • New residents who made the land their home.
    • Associated with Shivpriya (Naag Priya) land, where Naga caste is dominant.

    ❖ Socio-Cultural Aspects of the Sadan Community

    • Worship places called Sarna, located in open spaces like:
      • Mahadev Manda, Devi Gudi.
    • Temples were constructed later due to external influences.
    • Cultural values based on equality and cooperation:
      • Sahiya-Madait (cooperative systems).
    • Marriage customs:
      • Bride price (Daali Daam) instead of dowry.
      • Entire village participates in the marriage of a daughter.

    ❖ Relationship Between Sadans and Tribal Communities

    • Sadans were present before the arrival of major tribes (Munda, Oraon, Kharia, etc.).
    • Primitive Sadan groups include:
      • Naga, Asur, Sarak tribes.
    • Coexistence with incoming tribal communities.
    • Over time, a fusion of languages, songs, music, and cultures occurred.

    ❖ Classification of Sadans

    1. Ancient Original Sadans – Indigenous residents of Jharkhand.
    2. Medieval Settlers – Brought by kings from other states; ~75% assimilated as Jharkhandi.
    3. Newcomers – Traders and professionals; ~50% Jharkhandi cultural influence.
    4. Recent Migrants – Arrived post-1932; weak Jharkhandi identity.

    Major Scheduled Tribes of Jharkhand (As per Census 2011)

    S.No.TribeDistrict / DivisionPopulationPercentageLanguage
    1SantalSanthal Pargana27,54,72331.86%Santali
    2OraonRanchi17,16,61819.85%Kurukh
    3MundaRanchi12,29,22114.21%Mundari
    4HoSinghbhum9,28,28910.73%Ho
    5KharwarPalamu2,48,9742.87%Kharwari

    ❖ Language and Culture of Sadans

    • Sadani language (now called Nagpuri) was once the official language under the Nagvanshi rule.
    • Despite dialectical differences, a shared cultural sentiment prevails.
    • Folk dances include:
      • Fagua, Thadiya, Umkach, Uidhra, Jhumar, etc.

    ❖ Economic and Social Contributions

    • Significant role in:
      • Agriculture, metalwork (iron-copper), craftsmanship, and trade.
    • Traditional systems like:
      • Madhait Pratha – collective labor.
      • Interest-free loan system – strengthened the rural economy.

    ❖ Current Status of Sadans in Jharkhand

    • Important figures in the freedom struggle:
      • Pandey Ganpat Rai, Nilambar-Pitambar, etc.
    • After independence:
      • Decline in political voice.
      • Marginalisation after Jharkhand was declared a tribal state by the Bhuria Committee.

    ❖ Major Sadan-Associated Tribes

    • Birjhia, Cheek Baraik, Godait, Karmali, Lohra, Mahli, Kisan, Asur, etc.

    ❖ Highlights of Major Tribes in Jharkhand

    ▸ Oraon

    • Occupation: Farming; now also in industry and services.
    • Literacy (2011):
      • Total: 67%
      • Male: 72.9%
      • Female: 52.4%
    • Religion: Traditional and Christian (due to missionary influence).

    ▸ Munda

    • Race: Australoid
    • Language: Mundari (Austro-Asiatic)
    • Population (2011): 12,29,221
    • Residence: 89.6% rural
    • Key traditions:
      • Chief: Hatumunda
      • Council: Padha, led by Padha Raja
      • Deity: Singbonga
    • Marriage rules:
      • No intra-tribe or same-gotra marriage.
      • Widow remarriage allowed.
    • Literacy (2011): 62.6%

    ▸ Kharwar

    • Regions: Palamu, Latehar, Garhwa, Lohardaga, Ranchi.
    • Family: Patriarchal.
    • Marriage: Inter-gotra mandatory; child marriage exists.
    • Occupation: Agriculture, hunting, labor.
    • Literacy (2011): 56.4%

    ▸ Kharia

    • Subgroups: Hill, Dhelki, Doodh Kharia
    • Population (2011): 1,96,135
    • Village governance: Padha and Doklo Sohor
    • Chief: Pradhan
    • Marriage: Gotra system, but intra-gotra allowed.
    • Literacy: 65.9%

    ▸ Vedia

    • Origin: Possibly related to Kurmi or Munda.
    • Residence: Hazaribagh, Ramgarh, Singhbhum.
    • Marriage: Endogamy prohibited; bride price system.
    • Literacy: 58%

    ▸ Bhumij

    • Origin: Subgroup of Munda.
    • Region: Ranchi, Hazaribagh, Dhanbad, Singhbhum.
    • Marriage: No same-gotra or inter-caste marriage.
    • Population (2011): 2,09,448

    ▸ Big Tribe

    • Region: Singhbhum
    • Population (2011): 3,464
    • Occupation: Forest products, labor.

    ▸ Lohara

    • Clan: Descendants of Asur.
    • Traditional work: Iron smelting.
    • Population (2011): 2,16,226
    • Literacy: 56.2%

    ▸ Mahli

    • Clan: Dravidian
    • Occupation: Bamboo and wood products.
    • Sub-castes: Bamboo Mahli, Silkhi Mahli, Tanti Mahli.
    • Literacy (2011): 152,663 literate

    Table 7.4 – Population of Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTG)

    S.No.NamePopulation (2001)Population (2011)Literacy Rate (%)
    1Birhor7,51410,72634.5
    2Parhiya20,78625,58533.1
    3Mal Pahadia1,15,0931,35,79739.6
    4Sambar6,0049,68833.7
    5Sauria Pahadia31,05046,22239.7
    6Hill Kharia1,64,0221,96,13565.9
    7Korba27,17735,60637.9
    8Asur10,34722,45946.9
    9Birjia5,3656,27650.2

    ❖ PVTG (Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups)

    • Key PVTGs:
      • Mal Pahadia, Parhiya, Savar/Sanwar, Birjia, Birhor, Asur.
    • Prominent populations:
      • Mal Pahadia: 1,35,797
      • Hill Kharia: 1,96,135

    Scheduled Tribe Population Distribution (in Percentage)

    DistrictPercentage (%)
    Koderma0.96%
    Garhwa15.54%
    Palamu9.34%
    Chatra12.13%
    Giridih9.74%
    Deoghar7.02%
    Hazaribagh7.02%
    Ramgarh21.19%
    Bokaro12.4%
    Dhanbad1.66%
    Sahebganj28.41%

    Tribal Language, Festivals, Dance, Music, and Painting

    SubjectDescription
    LanguagesSantali, Mundari, Kurukh, Khortha, Nagpuriya, Sadri, Kharia, Pachparganiya, Ho, Malto, Karmali, Hindi, Urdu, Bengali
    FestivalsSarhul, Karma, Sohrai, Badna, Eid, Christmas, Holi, Dussehra
    Folk DancesAkhariya, Domkach, Jhumar, Fagua, Pawas
    Musical InstrumentsMandar, Dhol, Dhak, Dhamsa, Flute, Kartal, Shehnai etc.
    PaintingsSantali Wall Paintings, Oraon Wall Paintings

    Additional Information

    • Region: Santhal Pargana
    • Population (2011): 32,786
    • Literacy Rate: 55.5%
    • Marriage Tradition: Exogamous (outside the same clan)
    • Death Rites: Burial tradition

  • Traditional Tribal Justice and Government system in Jharkhand

    Self-Governance System of Mundas

    • Language: Mundari (Austro-Asiatic Family)
    • Main Areas of Residence: Ranchi, Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, Palamu, Dhanbad
    • Population: Approximately 12.29 Lakhs
    • Main Purpose: Settlement of social, religious, economic, cultural, and criminal matters.

    Key Positions and Roles

    • Munda: Head of the village; leads administration, judicial functions, and tax collection.
    • Padha Raja: Head of a group of 12-20 villages (Padha); handles complex disputes (Honorarium: ₹1000).
    • Raja: Head of 22 Padhas; high-level decision-maker.
    • Thakur: Assistant to the Padha Raja.
    • Diwan: Minister of the Raja; responsible for implementation of orders (Garh Diwan and Raj Diwan).
    • Barkandaz (Soldier): Distributes notices; ensures security in Sabha.
    • Pandey: Responsible for the protection of documents and issuing notices.
    • Lal (Bardalal, Majhalal, Chhotelal): Acts as a lawyer-like debater in Sabha.
    • Pahan: Assistant to Munda; oversees religious functions.
    • Priest Pahan: Conducts worship during festivals.
    • Mahato: Distributes information; assistant to Munda and Pahan.
    • Purification Work: Involved in priestly duties.
    • Ghatwar: Distributes punishment materials.
    • Chawar Dolait: Responsible for washing hands and feet in Sabha.
    • Paan Khawas: Distributes lime-tobacco in Sabha.

    Dispute Resolution Process

    1. First Stage:
      • The aggrieved person informs the Munda.
      • Mahato spreads the information across the village.
      • A hearing takes place in the village Sabha.
      • Decision: Financial penalty or social boycott.
    2. Second Stage:
      • If unresolved at the village level, a Padha Sabha is convened.
      • Information is disseminated through Diwan and Barkandaz.
    3. Third Stage:
      • If unresolved in the Padha Sabha, the matter is taken to the Mahasabha of 22 Padharajas.
      • Final Decision: The decision is final and binding.

    Contributions of the Traditional System in Various Fields

    • Criminal Cases: Economic penalty; decisions based on human values.
    • Sexual Atrocities: Strict punishment; responsibility of the girl in case of marriage.
    • Development Work: Construction of roads, wells, and canals through Shramdaan (voluntary labor).
    • Land Disputes: Fair distribution by Munda.
    • Religious Work: Pahan sets the dates for religious activities.
    • Rights of Women: Limited rights on land for maintenance.
    • Hereditary Rights: The post is handed over only to eligible heirs.

    Akhada and Collective Decision Making

    • Location: Middle of the village, often under a tree (if available).
    • Function: Collective discussion and morality-based decisions; ensures quick and low-cost justice.

    Padha Panchayat Governance System (Uraon Tribe)

    Village Panchayat

    • Main Officials: Mahto (Chief), Pahan (Priest), Bhandari (Messenger).
    • Function: Dispute settlement, disaster management, and festival organization.

    Padha Panchayat

    • Group: 9-12 villages.
    • Chief: Padha Raja.
    • Other Officials: Diwan, Minister, Kotwar, Panbhara.
    • Function: Acts as an appellate court and enforces social rules.
    • Special Note: The “Mudma Mela” of Ranchi district is a prominent example of Padha Panchayat’s influence.

    Relationship Between Mahto and Padha Raja

    • The Mahto works under the Padha Raja.
    • The Padha Raja does not intervene without the Mahto’s request.

    Manki-Munda Self-Rule System

    Historical Background

    • Prevalent in western and eastern Singhbhum and Saraikela-Kharsawan districts.
    • Prior to British rule, the Porahat (Singhbhum) king ruled, but the ‘Ho’ community was not directly controlled by the king.

    Changes After British Rule

    • In 1821, the British occupied southern Singhbhum and named it Kolhan Government State. Captain Thomas Wilkinson was appointed in 1837 for administration.
    • Wilkinson Rule:
      • Munda: Hears civil cases.
      • Manki: Hears criminal cases.

    Objectives of Administration in Kolhan

    • Maintain local governance.
    • Establish a direct relationship between the government and the people.
    • Settle disputes through village panchayats.
    • Prevent the entry of outsiders into the area.

    Rights and Duties of Manki

    • Hereditary Post (Marusi): Manki’s role is hereditary.
    • Chief and Responsible Officer: Oversees the Peed (region).
    • Revenue Collection: Works with Munda for revenue collection; entitled to a 10% commission.
    • Police Officer: Arrests criminals and hands them over to authorities.
    • Government Orders: Acts in accordance with government orders.
    • Dispute Resolution: Resolves smaller disputes and reports to the Deputy Commissioner.

    Rights and Duties of Munda

    • Represents the village and its autonomy.
    • Has the right to settle fallow land.
    • Informs the government about the settlement of outsiders.
    • Oversees public resources in the village.
    • Acts as a police officer; reports crimes to district administration.
    • Ensures forest conservation and law enforcement.

    Other Key Officials in Kolhan

    • Manki Committee: Resolves complex disputes.
    • Dakuamunda: Assistant to Munda; informs about meetings.
    • Tehsildar: Assistant to Manki; handles revenue collection.
    • Diuri: Responsible for religious worship and social crime resolution.
    • Travel Diuri: Participates in worship of village deities.

    Manjhi-Pargana Governance System (Santhal Pargana)

    Structure

    • Parganait: Head of 15-20 villages.
    • Desh Manjhi / Mode Manjhi: Head of 5-8 villages.
    • Manjhi: Village head.
    • Pranik: Sub-Manjhi.
    • Godait: Secretary and Treasurer.
    • Jog Manjhi: Youth leadership.
    • Jog Pranik: Assistant to Jog Manjhi.
    • Bhagdo Praja: Leading member of Gram Sabha.
    • Laser Tangoy: Security head.
    • Naike: Head of religious functions.
    • Chowkidar: Responsible for catching criminals.

    Dispute Settlement Process

    1. Village-Level: Disputes are settled by the Manjhi.
    2. If Unresolved: The matter is escalated to the Desh Manjhi.
    3. Final Decision: The Parganait handles unresolved issues at the Parganait level.

    Criminal Case Resolution

    • Village-Level: Most crimes, except murder, are settled in the village.
    • Punishments: Ranges from a light penalty (karela danda) to a large monetary fine.
    • Payment Plans: If the criminal cannot pay, they are given a payment period.
    • Serious Crimes: No release is allowed for serious crimes.

    Settlement of Sexual Crimes

    • Reported by the victim or guardian.
    • A meeting is held where all parties (complainant, accused, and witness) present their case.
    • If Found Guilty:
      • A marriage proposal is made (if both parties agree).
      • If rejected, an appropriate punishment is imposed.

    Additional Traditional Systems

    1. Illegitimate Children and Marriage Laws:
      • Jog Manjhi: Assigned as the gotra for illegitimate children.
      • Daughters may be married with the consent of their father, and dowry is provided.
    2. Family and Village Disputes:
      • Disputes are first brought before the village’s Manjhi, and the matter is escalated if unresolved.
    3. Bitlaha Tradition:
      • Social ostracism is imposed if a person does not follow the punishment. The community works together to persuade the individual, and if ignored, a “Bitlaha” ceremony is held.
    4. Sohor Panchayat (Kharia Tribe):
      • Several villages form the Sohor Panchayat to resolve disputes not settled at the village level.
    5. Village-Level Panchayat System:
      • The Mahato and elders lead meetings to resolve disputes, especially related to land and festivals.
    6. Caste and Private Panchayat System:
      • Private Panchayats can be called for personal disputes, where decisions are made through trial by fire or oath.
    7. Santhal Panchayat System (Manjhi Than):
      • Five officers form the Panchayat: Manjhi, Pranik, Jog Manjhi, Jog Pranik, and Godait. Originally elected annually, the position became hereditary.
    8. Other Tribal Panchayats:
      • Other tribes like Bhumij, Chero, Oraon, Munda, Birhor, etc., had their separate panchayats with positions like Mahato, Dehri, Raja, Munda, Naya.

    Nagavanshi Governance System

    • King: Head of governance.
    • Allies: Army, landlords, jagirdars, Brahmins, Rajguru, and priests.
    • Revenue Administration: Managed by Diwan, Patwari, and Amin.
    • Parha Panchayats: Foundation of administration, though the influence of Kol and Oraon decreased over time, with Kayastha influence growing.

  • झारखंड में पारंपरिक जनजातीय न्याय और शासकीय व्यवस्था

    जनजातीय शासन व्यवस्था

    मुण्डाओं की स्वशासन व्यवस्था

    • भाषा: मुण्डारी (आस्ट्रो-एशियाटिक परिवार)
    • मुख्य निवास स्थान: राँची, सिंहभूम, हजारीबाग, पलामू, धनबाद
    • जनसंख्या: लगभग 12.29 लाख
    • प्रमुख उद्देश्य: सामाजिक, धार्मिक, आर्थिक, सांस्कृतिक और आपराधिक मामलों का निपटारा।
    पदाधिकारीभूमिका
    मुण्डागाँव का प्रधान; प्रशासन, न्यायिक कार्यों का नेतृत्व; कर वसूली।
    पड़हा राजा12-20 गाँवों के समूह (पड़हा) का प्रधान; जटिल विवादों का निपटारा। (मानेदय ₹1000/-)
    राजा22 पड़हा का प्रधान; उच्च स्तर का निर्णयकर्ता।
    ठाकुरपड़हा राजा का सहायक।
    दीवानराजा का मंत्री; आदेशों का क्रियान्वयन। (गढ़ दीवान और राज दीवान)
    बरकंदाज (सिपाही)नोटिस वितरण।
    दारोगासभा में नियंत्रण और सुरक्षा।
    पाण्डेयकागजातों का संरक्षण व नोटिस जारी करना।
    लाल (बड़लाल, मझलाल, छोटेलाल)सभा में वकील जैसे बहसकर्ता।
    पाहनमुण्डा का सहायक; धार्मिक कार्यों का निर्वहन।
    पुजारी पाहनपर्व-त्योहारों में पूजा कार्य।
    महतोसूचना प्रसारक; मुण्डा व पाहन का सहायक।
    पुरोहितसमाज में शुद्धिकरण कार्य।
    घटवारदंड सामग्री का वितरण।
    चवार डोलाइतसभा में हाथ-पैर धुलाने का कार्य।
    पान खवाससभा में चूना-तम्बाकू वितरण।

    विवाद निपटारा प्रक्रिया

    प्रथम चरण:

    • पीड़ित व्यक्ति मुण्डा को सूचित करता है।
    • महतो सूचना फैलाता है।
    • गाँव सभा में दोनों पक्षों की सुनवाई।
    • निर्णय: आर्थिक दंड या सामाजिक बहिष्कार।

    द्वितीय चरण:

    • गाँव स्तर पर मामला न सुलझने पर पड़हा सभा बुलाई जाती है।
    • दीवान और बरकंदाज के माध्यम से सूचना प्रसारित।

    तृतीय चरण:

    • पड़हा सभा में भी न सुलझने पर 22 पड़हाराजा की महासभा में निर्णय।
    • निर्णय अनिवार्य रूप से मान्य होता है।

    विभिन्न क्षेत्रों में पारंपरिक व्यवस्था का योगदान

    • आपराधिक मामले: आर्थिक दंड; मानवीय मूल्यों पर आधारित निर्णय।
    • यौन अत्याचार: कड़ी सजा; विवाह की स्थिति में लड़की की जिम्मेदारी।
    • विकास कार्य: श्रमदान द्वारा सड़क, कुएँ, नहर का निर्माण।
    • भूमि विवाद: मुण्डा द्वारा निष्पक्ष बँटवारा।
    • धार्मिक कार्य: पाहन द्वारा तिथि निर्धारण।
    • महिलाओं के अधिकार: भरण-पोषण हेतु भूमि पर सीमित अधिकार।
    • पद का वंशानुगत अधिकार: योग्य उत्तराधिकारी को ही पद सौंपा जाता है।

    अखड़ा और सामूहिक निर्णय

    • स्थान: गाँव के मध्य, पेड़ के नीचे (यदि उपलब्ध हो)।
    • कार्य: सामूहिक विचार-विमर्श, नैतिकता आधारित निर्णय, त्वरित और न्यूनतम खर्च में न्याय।

    पड़हा पंचायत शासन व्यवस्था (उराँव जाति)

    गाँव पंचायत

    • प्रमुख पदाधिकारी: महतो (प्रधान), पाहन (पुजारी), भंडारी (संदेशवाहक)।
    • कार्य: विवाद निपटारा, आपदा प्रबंधन, त्योहार आयोजन।

    पड़हा पंचायत

    • समूह: 9-12 गाँव।
    • प्रमुख: पड़हा राजा।
    • अन्य पदाधिकारी: दीवान, मंत्री, कोटवार, पैनभरा।
    • कार्य: अपीलीय न्यायालय की तरह कार्य; सामाजिक नियमों का पालन कराना।

    विशेष:
    राँची जिले का “मुड़मा मेला” पड़हा पंचायत का प्रभावशाली उदाहरण है।

    महतो और पड़हाराजा के बीच संबंध

    • महतो, पड़हाराजा के अधीनस्थ कार्य करता है।
    • किसी मामले में महतो के आग्रह के बिना पड़हाराजा हस्तक्षेप नहीं करता।

    (ग) मानकी-मुण्डा स्वशासन व्यवस्था

    ऐतिहासिक पृष्ठभूमि

    • यह व्यवस्था मुख्यतः पश्चिमी व पूर्वी सिंहभूम और सरायकेला-खरसांवा जिलों के ग्रामों में प्रचलित है।
    • ब्रिटिश सरकार के आगमन से पूर्व पोड़ाहाट (सिंहभूम) के राजा द्वारा शासन चलता था।
    • ‘हो’ समुदाय राजा के प्रत्यक्ष नियंत्रण में नहीं थे।

    ब्रिटिश शासन के बाद परिवर्तन

    • 1821 में ब्रिटिश सरकार ने सिंहभूम का दक्षिणी भाग कब्जे में लिया।
    • इस क्षेत्र को कोल्हान गवर्नमेंट स्टेट नाम दिया गया और कैप्टन थॉमस विल्किंसन को 1837 में प्रशासन के लिए नियुक्त किया गया।
    • प्रशासन हेतु विल्किंसन रूल बनाया गया, जिसमें:
      • दीवानी मामलों की सुनवाई मुण्डा करते थे।
      • आपराधिक मामलों की सुनवाई मानकी करते थे।

    कोल्हान क्षेत्र में प्रशासन के उद्देश्य

    1. स्थानीय सरकार को सुरक्षित रखना।
    2. जनता से सरकार का सीधा संबंध बनाए रखना।
    3. विवादों का निपटारा ग्राम पंचायतों के माध्यम से करना।
    4. क्षेत्र में बाहरी व्यक्तियों का प्रवेश रोकना।

    मानकी के अधिकार और कर्तव्य

    • ओहदा मारूसी (वंशानुगत) होता है।
    • पीड़ क्षेत्र का प्रमुख और जिम्मेदार अधिकारी।
    • राजस्व वसूली के लिए मुण्डा के साथ उत्तरदायी।
    • वसूली पर 10% कमीशन पाने का अधिकार।
    • पुलिस पदाधिकारी के रूप में कार्य करना।
    • अपराधियों को गिरफ्तार कर सुपुर्द करना।
    • सरकारी आदेशों के अनुसार काम करना।
    • छोटे विवादों का निपटारा और रिपोर्टिंग उपायुक्त को करना।

    मुण्डा के अधिकार और कर्तव्य

    • ग्राम प्रधान और ग्राम की स्वायत्तता का प्रतिनिधित्व करता है।
    • परती जमीन का बंदोबस्त करने का अधिकार।
    • बाहरी व्यक्ति के बसने की सूचना सरकार को देना।
    • गाँव के सार्वजनिक संसाधनों की देखरेख करना।
    • ग्राम का पुलिस पदाधिकारी होना।
    • अपराधों की सूचना जिला प्रशासन को देना।
    • वन संरक्षण और कानून व्यवस्था बनाए रखना।
    • किसी भी सरकारी अधिकारी को सहायता प्रदान करना।

    कोल्हान क्षेत्र के अन्य पदाधिकारी

    पदकार्य
    तीन मानकी समितिजटिल विवादों का समाधान
    डकुआमुण्डा का सहायक, बैठकों की सूचना देना
    तहसीलदारमानकी का सहायक, राजस्व संग्रहण कार्य
    दिउरीधार्मिक पूजा-पाठ और सामाजिक अपराधों का निपटारा
    यात्रा दिउरीग्राम देवी-देवताओं की पूजा और धार्मिक मामलों में सहभागी

    माँझी-परगना शासन व्यवस्था (संथाल परगना)

    संरचना

    • परगनैत (15-20 गाँवों का प्रमुख)
    • देश माँझी / मोड़े माँझी (5-8 गाँवों का प्रमुख)
    • माँझी (ग्राम प्रधान)
    • प्रानीक (उप-माँझी)
    • गोड़ाईत (सचिव और खजांची)
    • जोग माँझी (युवा नेतृत्व)
    • जोग प्रानीक (उप-जोग माँझी)
    • भग्दो प्रजा (ग्राम सभा के प्रमुख सदस्य)
    • लासेर टँगोय (सुरक्षा प्रमुख)
    • नायके (धार्मिक कार्यों का प्रमुख)
    • चौकीदार (अपराधियों को पकड़ने का कार्य)
    • दिशुम परगना (सभी परगनैतों का प्रमुख)

    विवाद निपटारा प्रक्रिया

    1. माँझी द्वारा गाँव में विवाद का निपटारा।
    2. असंतोष होने पर देश माँझी के पास मामला भेजना।
    3. आवश्यकता पड़ने पर परगनैत के पास अंतिम निर्णय के लिए भेजना।

    आपराधिक मामलों का निपटारा

    • हत्या जैसे गंभीर अपराध छोड़कर बाकी अपराध ग्राम स्तर पर निपटाए जाते हैं।
    • दंड का निर्धारण अपराध की गंभीरता के अनुसार किया जाता है:
      • हल्का दंड (करेला दंड) — 1.50 रु. तक।
      • गंभीर दंड में बड़ा आर्थिक दंड लगाया जाता है।
    • दोषी के पास धन नहीं होने पर भुगतान की अवधि दी जाती है।
    • गम्भीर अपराधों में रिहाई नहीं दी जाती।

    यौन अपराधों का निपटारा

    • पीड़िता या उसके अभिभावक द्वारा माँझी को सूचना दी जाती है।
    • बैठकी बुलाकर तीनों पक्षों (शिकायतकर्ता, आरोपी, गवाह) की बात सुनी जाती है।
    • दोषी पाए जाने पर:
      • विवाह का प्रस्ताव दिया जाता है (यदि दोनों सहमत हों तो)।
      • इनकार करने पर उपयुक्त दंड लगाया जाता है।

    1. अवैध संतान और विवाह का नियम (संताल समाज)

    • अवैध संतान होने पर उसे “जोग माँझी” गोत्र दिया जाता है।
    • लड़की के पिता किसी अन्य लड़के से विवाह करवा सकते हैं, सहमति पर।
    • विवाह होने पर हजनी (दहेज) के रूप में संपत्ति दी जाती है।

    2. परिवार और गाँव के विवाद

    • विवादों को सबसे पहले गाँव के माँझी के सामने लाया जाता है।
    • सभा बुलाकर गवाहों और पक्षों से सुनवाई होती है।
    • दंड का निर्धारण प्राणीक करता है।
    • यदि गाँव स्तर पर समाधान न हो, तो मामला देश माँझी और फिर परगनैत तक जाता है।

    3. बिटलाहा प्रथा

    • दंड न मानने पर सामाजिक बहिष्कार।
    • गाँव-गाँव जाकर समझाया जाता है।
    • नहीं मानने पर तय दिन, समय, स्थान पर ‘बिटलाहा’ कर दिया जाता है।

    4. सोहोर पंचायत (खड़िया समाज)

    • कई गाँव मिलकर बनाते हैं।
    • गाँव स्तर पर न सुलझने वाले मामले सोहोर पंचायत में जाते हैं।
    • सोहोर की अध्यक्षता में निर्णय लिया जाता है।

    5. ग्राम स्तर पर पंचायत व्यवस्था

    • झगड़े निपटाने के लिए महतो और बुजुर्गों की सभा।
    • महतो का नेतृत्व जरूरी।
    • भूमि विवादों का समाधान डोकलो और महतो करते हैं।
    • पर्व-त्योहारों का निर्णय भी महतो और बुजुर्ग करते हैं।
    • हत्या को छोड़कर अन्य गम्भीर मामलों का निपटारा गाँव में होता है।

    6. जातीय पंचायत और निजी पंचायत व्यवस्था

    • व्यक्तिगत झगड़ों के लिए निजी पंचायत बुलाई जा सकती है।
    • पंच और सरपंच मिलकर निर्णय करते थे।
    • अग्निपरीक्षा और शपथ के माध्यम से सत्यापन होता था।

    7. संथाल पंचायत प्रणाली (मांझी थान)

    • पंचायत के पाँच पदाधिकारी: माँझी, परानिक, जोग माँझी, जोग परानिक, गोडेत।
    • पंचायत का चुनाव कभी वार्षिक था, बाद में वंशानुगत।
    • सामाजिक अपराधों का दंड जैसे ‘बिटलाहा’ यहीं तय होता था।
    • अपील के लिए ‘मोड़े मांझी’ और ‘सेन्दरा वंसी’ में बैठक होती थी।

    8. अन्य जनजातीय पंचायतें

    • भूमिज, चेरो, उराँव, मुंडा, बिरहोर आदि जनजातियों की अलग-अलग पंचायतें थी।
    • पंचायत प्रमुख: महतो, देहरी, राजा, मुंडा, नाया आदि।

    9. नागवंशी शासन व्यवस्था

    • राजा शासन का प्रमुख था।
    • सेना, जमींदार, जागीरदार, ब्राह्मण, राजगुरु, पुरोहित प्रमुख सहयोगी।
    • राजस्व व्यवस्था में दीवान, पटवारी, अमीन की भूमिका।
    • परहा पंचायतें प्रशासन की नींव।
    • धीरे-धीरे कोल और उराँव का प्रभाव घटा, कायस्थ प्रभाव बढ़ा।

  • History of Jharkhand: From the post-Mughal era to modern times (1707–1942)

    1. After Aurangzeb’s Death (1707)

    • Mughal empire weakened, leading to anarchy in Jharkhand.
    • Local kings and landlords tried to strengthen their powers:
      • Ramgarh: Initially received ‘mansab’ from the Bengal Subedar but started acting independently.
      • Chhotanagpur: Nagavanshi kings asserted independence from Mughal representatives.
      • Palamu: Chero rulers remained under nominal Mughal control, but internal power struggles emerged.
      • Singhbhum: Local rulers were practically independent; Mughal control was weak.
    • Nawabs of Bengal (Murshid Quli Khan, Alivardi Khan):
      • Attempted tax collection and political control.
      • Frequent rebellions and local conflicts made it difficult.
    • By mid-18th century:
      • Jharkhand remained under Mughal/Nawabi rule only nominally.
      • Real control was in the hands of local kings.

    2. Modern Period (1765–1942)

    Diwani of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa (1765)

    • 12 August 1765: Shah Alam II granted Diwani rights to the East India Company.
    • Jharkhand (Chhota Nagpur) was included under Bihar but remained culturally and politically distinct.
    • Mughal and Maratha invasions occurred but no permanent rule was established.

    3. Entry of the British in Jharkhand

    Singhbhum Region (1760 Onwards)

    • British interest arose after capturing Midnapur.
    • Major Kingdoms:
      • Dhalbhum
      • Paurahat
      • Kolhan (Ho tribe territory)

    Campaigns and Battles

    • January 1767: Fergusson led an invasion:
      • Defeated kings of Jhargram, Jambani, Silda.
      • Captured Dhalbhum’s burning palace (22 March 1767).
      • Installed Jagannath Dhal as king, later replaced by Nimu Dhal.

    Treaties

    • 1773: Treaty with the King of Porahat.
    • Later similar treaties with Saraikela and Kharsawan.

    Kolhan and the Ho Tribe

    • Ho tribe remained independent from Mughal and Maratha rule.
    • Frequent invasions into Nagavanshi territories (1770, 1800).
    • British military actions:
      • 1820: Major Roughsedge – partial success.
      • 1821: Colonel Richard – Ho tribe surrendered.
      • Tax imposed: 1 Rupee per plough.
    • Kol Rebellion (1831–32, 1836–37):
      • Ho tribe revolted but eventually surrendered.
      • British administrative unit created in Kolhan.

    4. British Expansion in Palamu and Chhotanagpur

    Palamu (1771)

    • Occupied by Chero kings: Chiranjit Rai and Jayanath Singh.
    • British supported Gopal Rai:
      • March 21, 1771: Palamu fort captured by Captain Jacob Camek.
      • July 1771: Gopal Rai declared king, annual land revenue ₹12,000.

    Chhotanagpur

    • Nagavanshi King Darpanath Shah:
      • Accepted British subordination.
      • Annual tribute: ₹12,000.
      • Pledged help against the Marathas.

    Ramgarh and Hazaribagh

    • Raja Mukund Singh:
      • Initially opposed British influence.
      • Later proposed friendship under British pressure.
      • Gradual British influence increased.

    5. Administrative Reorganization

    Formation of Lohardaga Agency

    • Headquarters: Kisanpur, Lohardaga.
    • First Agent: Thomas Wilkinson (reported directly to Governor-General).
    • District Officer: Robert Ouseley appointed.

    Post-1854 Changes

    • South-West Frontier Agency abolished.
    • Chhotanagpur placed under Bengal’s Lieutenant Governor.
    • Formation of Chhota Nagpur Commissionerate:
      • Included Lohardaga, Hazaribagh, Manbhum, Singhbhum, Surguja, etc.

    6. Manbhum Area

    • Large region during the East India Company era, including:
      • Jharia, Katras, Parra, Raghunathpur, and others.
    • 1767 (Fergusson’s entry):
      • Five major independent landlords: Manbhum, Barabhum, Supur, Abhinagar, Chatana.
    • British struggle:
      • Military action initially failed.
      • Adopted annual settlement policy for control.

    7. Singhbhum and Kolhan (Further Developments)

    • 1837: Captain Wilkinson’s military action in Kolhan.
      • Villages Ipilasingi and Panga burnt.
      • Formation of Kolhan Government Estate.
      • First Deputy Commissioner: Tickell.
    • Wilkinson Rules (1833):
      • Administrative code of 31 rules implemented.
    • Seraikela and Kharsawan:
      • Gradually annexed in 1934.

    8. Santhal Pargana and Paharia Policy

    Early British Efforts

    • Peace efforts with hill tribes (‘Highlander’, ‘Hill Man’).
    • Tribal administration under the Khetauri family of Manihari.

    Disturbances

    • Maler tribe attacks during the famine of 1770.
    • Looting and violence increased.
    • Fear spread in Rajmahal and nearby regions.

    British Military Actions

    • Captain Brooke (1771-1774):
      • Suppressed forest terror.
      • Settled 283 villages.
    • Captain James Brown (1774-1778):
      • Proposed respecting traditional tribal systems.

    Augustus Cleveland’s Reforms (1779–1784)

    • Adopted justice and humane policy.
    • Cleveland Plan:
      • Engage hill tribes in agriculture and military.
      • Salary and uniforms for 400 tribal soldiers.
    • Effects:
      • Brought peace and reduced crime.
      • Markets set up for tribal trade.
    • Post-Cleveland:
      • Schemes declined after his death.
      • Paharia Panchayats weakened.

    Attempts at Reforms

    • Marquis of Hastings: Promised but did not fulfill support schemes.
    • Fombell: Tried to revive Paharia system.
    • Abdul Rasul Khan’s Corruption: Caused widespread discontent.

    9. Arrival and Struggles of the Santhals

    • Santhals settled in Bhagalpur, Birbhum, and later Damin-i-Koh.
    • Exploited by moneylenders, trapped in debt.
    • Faced severe injustice and exploitation.

    10. Santhal Rebellion (1855–1856)

    Causes

    • Bonded labor, exorbitant loans, land seizure.
    • Exploitation by landlords, moneylenders, and British officials.

    Leadership and Movement

    • Sidhu, Kanhu, Chand, Bhairav: Divine-inspired leadership.
    • 30 June 1855: 10,000 Santhals assembled at Bhognadih.
    • 7 July 1855: Killed Inspector Maheshlal Dutt.

    Conflict and Suppression

    • Spread rebellion across Bhagalpur and Birbhum.
    • British forces (Major Burrow, Colonel Bird) sent for suppression.
    • Rebellion suppressed by 1856.

    Consequences

    • Formation of Santhal Pargana:
      • Damin-i-Koh separated.
      • Sub-divisions: Dumka, Godda, Deoghar, Rajmahal.
    • Reforms:
      • Chieftaincy system recognized.
      • Direct contact between Santhals and administration.
      • Laws made to curb exploitation.
    • Legacy:
      • Raised awareness of tribal rights.
      • Influenced future Indian freedom movements.

    Maratha Incursions and Turmoil in Rajmahal (1742–1760): A Historical Account

    Between 1742 and 1751, Bengal and Bihar faced continuous Maratha invasions, significantly impacting regions such as Rajmahal and Santhal Pargana. Below is a detailed bullet-point chronicle of these events and their consequences:

    Maratha Invasions of Bengal and Bihar

    • 1742–1751: Period marked by recurring Maratha attacks on Bengal and Bihar.
    • 1743:
      • Two separate Maratha armies moved toward Bengal.
      • One was led by Raghuji Bhonsle.
      • The other, under Peshwa Balaji Rao, was sent to thwart Raghuji’s ambitions.
      • Balaji Rao entered Bihar from the south with 40,000 cavalry.

    Balaji Rao’s March Through Bihar

    • He advanced through:
      • Tikari
      • Gaya
      • Manpur
      • Bihar
      • Munger
      • Bhagalpur
    • Reached Rajmahal hills via Beniaganj, aided by a local Rajput.
      • British writer Holwell refers to “Beniaganj” near the foothills west of Rajmahal.
      • Another account by Rennel refers to “Beniya Gaong”, 20 miles southeast of Rajmahal.
      • Actual location likely corresponds to Baman Gawa, ~1 mile northwest of Tin-Pahar railway station, ~7 miles southwest of Rajmahal.
    • Balaji proceeded via Birbhum toward Murshidabad.

    Raghuji Bhonsle’s Parallel Advance

    • 1745: Raghuji Bhonsle marched toward Murshidabad through:
      • Birbhum
      • Santhal Pargana’s forests and hills

    1748: Afghan Revolt and Maratha Intrusion

    • 1748: Second Afghan rebellion broke out.
      • Alivardi Khan moved to Bihar to suppress it.
    • Meanwhile, Maratha army led by Mir Habib infiltrated via Santhal Pargana.
      • British records show they halted at Herupur (likely Hirapur in Pakur sub-division).
    • 1749: As Alivardi camped at Midnapore, Mir Habib’s troops looted Bengal.

    1757: Capture of Siraj-ud-Daulah in Rajmahal

    • Mir Daud, faujdar of Rajmahal and brother of Jafar Ali Khan, captured Siraj-ud-Daulah.
    • After the Battle of Plassey, Siraj was heading north by boat.
    • He disembarked at Rajmahal’s Ganga banks to rest.
    • Despite disguise, he was recognized by Dana Shah, a man previously punished by Siraj by having his nose and ears cut off.
    • Ironically, Siraj rested at the very spot where Dana Shah lived as a fakir.
    • Dana Shah informed Mir Daud, who immediately dispatched soldiers to arrest Siraj.
    • Siraj was captured and looted by the soldiers.
    • Mir Qasim, who later replaced Mir Jafar, seized Lutfunnisa’s jewel chest worth lakhs of rupees.
    • Siraj’s chief guard reached Rajmahal hours later, but it was too late.

    Death of Siraj-ud-Daulah

    • As Siraj was being taken to Murshidabad, Miran, son of Mir Jafar Ali Khan, murdered him.

    Death and Burial of Miran (1760)

    • 1760: While campaigning against the Nawab of Purnea, Miran died from a lightning strike in Champaran.
    • His body was brought back and buried at Rajmahal.
    • According to Sair-ul-Mutakhirin:
      • His body was transported in a coffin via the Ganga River.
      • Due to unbearable stench, the entourage was forced to stop at Rajmahal and bury him there.
      • A memorial still exists at the burial site.

  • Jharkhand: Culture, Demographics, Economy, Language, Religion & Key Insights

    Nestled in eastern India, Jharkhand is a treasure trove of natural beauty, diverse terrain, and ecological richness. From its dense forests and sacred hills to mineral-rich plateaus and mighty rivers, the state offers a stunning geographic landscape worth exploring.

    Location & Area

    • Jharkhand is located in eastern India.
    • It shares borders with:
      • Bihar to the north
      • West Bengal to the east
      • Odisha to the south
      • Chhattisgarh and Uttar Pradesh to the west
    • Total geographical area: 79,716 sq. km (30,779 sq. mi)

    Topography & Natural Features

    • Predominantly lies on the Chota Nagpur Plateau, rich in minerals and natural vegetation.
    • The plateau is interspersed with rivers, valleys, and forests, supporting a vibrant ecosystem.
    • Forests cover a significant portion of the state, providing a natural habitat for elephants, tigers, and various species of flora and fauna.

    Climate & Seasons

    Jharkhand’s climate ranges from humid subtropical in the north to tropical wet and dry in the southeast.

    Seasonal Breakdown:

    • Summer (Mid-April to Mid-June):
      • Hottest month: May
      • Avg. temperatures: 25°C–37°C (77°F–99°F)
    • Monsoon (Mid-June to October):
      • Receives 1,000–1,500 mm of rainfall annually
      • July and August are the wettest months
    • Autumn (October to November)
    • Winter (November to February):
      • Ranchi temperatures range from 10°C to 24°C (50°F–75°F)
    • Spring (Mid-February to Mid-April)

    Major Hills & Mountain Ranges

    Parasnath Hill (Giridih District)

    • Also known as Sri Sammed Shikharji (Jain pilgrimage site)
    • Sacred to Santhal tribes as Marang Buru
    • Height: 1,365 meters
    • Believed to be the site where 20 of 24 Jain Tirthankaras attained Moksha

    Netarhat (Latehar District)

    • Known as the “Queen of Chotanagpur”
    • A popular hill station with scenic beauty and the Netarhat Residential School

    Rajmahal Hills (Sahibganj & Godda Districts)

    • Geologically significant—belonging to the Jurassic era
    • Known for waterfalls, lakes, and dense greenery

    Trikut Hill (Near Deoghar)

    • Known as Trikutchal due to its three prominent peaks
    • Height: 2,470 feet
    • A spiritual destination and scenic attraction

    Tagore Hill (Morabadi, Ranchi)

    • Also called Morabadi Hill
    • Visited by Jyotirindranath Tagore (Rabindranath Tagore’s brother) in 1908
    RiverOriginKey Cities / Areas
    GangaHimalayas (enters via Sahebganj)Sahebganj, Rajmahal
    SonAmarkantakSidhi
    SubarnarekhaNagdi, RanchiRanchi, Jamshedpur, Ghatshila
    KharkaiMayurbhanj, OdishaRairangpur, Adityapur, Jamshedpur
    DamodarTori, LateharDhanbad, Bokaro, Ramgarh, Giridih
    North KoelChota Nagpur PlateauDaltonganj
    South KoelRanchiManoharpur, Rourkela
    Lilajan (Falgu)North Chota Nagpur PlateauGaya
    AjayMungerPurulia, Ilambazar, Jaydev Kenduli
    MayurakshiTrikut HillSuri
    BarakarPadma, HazaribaghKoderma, Giridih, Hazaribagh

    Flora & Fauna

    Jharkhand’s rich biodiversity is protected through its many wildlife sanctuaries and national parks, making it a haven for nature lovers.

    Major Wildlife Sanctuaries & National Parks:

    • Palamu Tiger Reserve
    • Betla National Park
    • Dalma Wildlife Sanctuary
    • Hazaribagh Wildlife Sanctuary
    • Koderma Wildlife Sanctuary
    • Lawalong Wildlife Sanctuary
    • Palkot Wildlife Sanctuary
    • Mahuadanr Wolf Sanctuary

    Biodiversity at Palamu Tiger Reserve:

    • Mammals: 39 species
    • Birds: 170 species
    • Reptiles: 12 species (including snakes & lizards)
    • Plants & Trees: Over 97 seed-bearing species
    • Herbs, Shrubs & Grasses: More than 80 species combined

    Demographics

    • Population (2011 Census): 32.96 million
      • Males: 16.93 million
      • Females: 16.03 million
      • Sex Ratio: 947 females per 1,000 males
    • Literacy Rate (2017): 73.40%
      • Highest: Ranchi (83.13%)
      • Lowest: Pakur (50.17%)
    • Social Composition:
      • Scheduled Tribes (ST): 26.21%
      • Scheduled Castes (SC): 12.08%
      • Highest tribal populations in Simdega, Khunti, Gumla, West Singhbhum, Latehar, Lohardaga

    Languages

    • Most spoken languages:
      • Khortha (23.46%)
      • Hindi (21.4%)
      • Bengali (9.74%)
      • Santali, Nagpuri, Urdu, Magahi, Ho, Mundari, Kurukh also widely spoken
    • Official Language: Hindi
    • Additional Official Languages: Urdu, Santali, Nagpuri, Kurukh, Mundari, Ho, Kharia, Bengali, Bhojpuri, and more
    • Linguistic Diversity: Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Austroasiatic roots

    Religion

    • Hinduism: 67.83% (Majority in 19/24 districts)
    • Islam: 14.53% (Highest in Pakur & Sahebganj)
    • Christianity: 4.3% (Majority in Simdega)
    • Sarnaism & Others: 12.84% (Majority/plurality in West Singhbhum, Lohardaga, Khunti, Gumla)

    Government & Administration

    • State Formed: 2000 (carved out from Bihar)
    • Governor: Constitutional head
    • Chief Minister & Cabinet: Executive power
    • High Court: Located in Ranchi
    • Divisions: 5
    • Districts: 24 (includes newer ones like Khunti, Ramgarh, Pakur)

    Major Cities (2011 Census)

    1. Jamshedpur – 1.34 million
    2. Dhanbad – 1.19 million
    3. Ranchi – 1.12 million
    4. Bokaro Steel City – 564K
    5. Deoghar – 203K
    6. Phusro, Hazaribagh, Giridih, Ramgarh, Medininagar

    Economy

    • Estimated GDP (2025–26): ₹5.56 lakh crore (~US$65 billion)
    • Per Capita GDP (2024–25): ₹115,960 (~US$1,400)
    • Urbanization: ~24.1%
    • Natural Resources:
      • Coal (3rd), Iron ore (4th), Copper ore (1st), Mica (1st), Bauxite (3rd), Uranium (1st), Gold, Silver, and more
    • Industrial Hubs: Jamshedpur, Dhanbad, Bokaro, Ranchi
      • Home to Tata Steel, NTPC, and others
    • Agriculture: Rice, wheat, maize, pulses, vegetables (tomato, brinjal, papaya, etc.)

    Handicrafts & Textiles

    • Jharcraft (est. 2006): Promotes sericulture, weaving, and handicrafts

    Cuisine

    • Staples: Rice, roti, dal, leafy greens
    • Popular Dishes:
      • Chhilka Roti, Dhooska, Malpua, Pitha, Arsa Roti, Dudhauri
      • Panipuri (Gupchup), Rugra, Putoo (mushrooms), Bamboo shoot dishes
    • Traditional Drinks:
      • Handia (rice beer)
      • Mahua daru (fermented from Mahua flowers)

    Folk Culture

    • Folk Dances:
      • Chhau, Domkach, Jhumair, Paiki, Fagua, Mundari dance, Santali dance
    • Vibrant traditions celebrated by both tribal and non-tribal communities

    Festivals of Jharkhand

    Jharkhand celebrates a vibrant mix of tribal and mainstream Indian festivals:

    • Sarhul – Celebrated by the Oraon tribe marking the beginning of the New Year.
    • Baha Parab – A flower festival celebrated by the Santhal tribe.
    • Karam Parab – Celebrates nature and community bonding.
    • Mage Parab, Sohrai, Bandna, Tusu Festival, Makar Sankranti, Nawakhani, Sendra Festival – Tribal harvest and seasonal festivals.
    • Popular Indian festivals: Durga Puja, Jitiya, Manasa Puja, Rath Yatra, Saraswati Puja, Diwali, Holi, Phagua.

    Art & Culture

    • Sohrai & Khovar Paintings:
      • Mural art form created by women.
      • Sohrai: Celebrated during the harvest season.
      • Khovar: Traditional wedding art.
    • Godna (Tattooing): An integral part of tribal identity and aesthetics.
    • Cinema (Jhollywood):
      • Produces films in Nagpuri, Khortha, Santali, Ho, and Kurukh.
      • Promotes regional storytelling and cultural preservation.

    Media & Communication

    • TV & Radio:
      • Doordarshan’s DD Jharkhand and All India Radio operate actively.
    • Leading Newspapers:
      • Hindi: Hindustan, Dainik Jagran, Prabhat Khabar, Ranchi Express
      • English: The Hindu, Times of India, Telegraph, Hindustan Times

    Transport Infrastructure

    Airways

    • Birsa Munda Airport (Ranchi) – Largest, with flights to major Indian cities.
    • Deoghar Airport, Sonari Airport (Jamshedpur), Bokaro Airport – Operational under UDAN scheme.
    • Upcoming/charter airports: Dumka, Giridih, Dhalbhumgarh, Chakulia, Dhanbad.

    Roadways

    • Over 2,660 km of National Highways.
    • Golden Quadrilateral project passes through Dhanbad.
    • Key National Highways: NH 18, 20, 22, 33, 143, 320, 343, and more.

    Railways

    • Dense rail network across the state.
    • Dhanbad Junction – Largest and most connected station.
    • Rail tunnels serve the hilly terrain.

    Inland Ports

    • Sahebganj Multi-Modal Port (on the Ganga) under development to boost riverine trade.

    Education

    Literacy Rates (2011 Census)

    • Overall: 66.41%
    • Top Districts:
      • Ranchi: 76.06%
      • East Singhbhum: 75.49%
      • Dhanbad: 74.52%

    Key Projects:

    • SSA, DPEP, NPEGEL, and KGBV under JEPC aim to achieve universal elementary education.

    Notable Schools:

    • St. Thomas School (Ranchi), DPS Ranchi/Bokaro, Loyola School Jamshedpur, Sainik School Tilaiya, De Nobili School, St. Xavier’s Hazaribagh.

    Social Impact:

    • Yuwa School, Hutup (Ranchi) – Empowering girls through football. Won Laureus Sport for Good Award in 2019.

    Higher Education

    Universities & Colleges:

    • Central University of Jharkhand, Vinoba Bhave University, Ranchi University, BIT Mesra, IIT Dhanbad, IIM Ranchi, XLRI Jamshedpur, AIIMS Deoghar, and many more.

    Specialized Institutes:

    • NIFFT Ranchi, National Institute of Technology Jamshedpur, Central Institute of Psychiatry Ranchi, Indian Institute of Agricultural Biotechnology

    Healthcare & Public Health

    • Historic mental health institutions: Central Institute of Psychiatry, RINPAS, Itki TB Sanatorium (est. 1928).
    • Modern hospitals: Tata Main Hospital (Jamshedpur), Bokaro General Hospital, Tata Motors Hospital (ISO certified).
    • Public health challenge: Fluoride contamination in Palamau and Garhwa districts.
      • Research collaborations with BIT Mesra and Princeton University for defluoridation.

    Sports

    • Cricket, Hockey, and Football are most popular.
    • Legendary figures:
      • MS Dhoni – Former Indian cricket captain.
      • Deepika Kumari – Commonwealth Games gold medalist in archery.
      • Nikki Pradhan – Olympian hockey player.
    • Venues:
      • JSCA Stadium – Hosts international and IPL matches.
      • JRD Tata Sports Complex – Home to Jamshedpur FC (ISL).

    Tourism Highlights

    Religious Sites:

    • Parasnath Hills, Baidyanath Dham, Maa Dewri Temple, Chhinnamasta Temple, Itkhori (Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain significance), Rankini Temple.

    Nature & Waterfalls:

    • Hundru, Jonha, Dassam, Panchghagh, Perwaghagh Falls.
    • Netarhat – Popular hill station.
    • Tattapani Hot Spring, Dalma Wildlife Sanctuary, Betla National Park.

    Cultural Sites:

    • State Museum, Hotwar
    • Tribal Research Institute and Museum – Showcases tribal heritage and art.

  • Jharkhand Budget 2025–26: Analysis and Key Highlights

    1. Introduction

    • On March 3, 2025, Finance Minister Radha Krishna Kishore presented the Jharkhand state budget for the financial year 2025–26. The budget outlines a strong focus on social welfare, infrastructure, and sectoral development while maintaining fiscal prudence.
    • The total budget outlay is ₹1.45 lakh crore, up from ₹1.28 lakh crore in 2024–25.

    2. Macroeconomic Overview

    The Jharkhand economy continues to show strong signs of growth, with progressive fiscal indicators:

    • Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP):
      Projected at ₹5,56,286 crore for 2025–26, marking a 10% increase over the previous year.
    • Revenue Surplus:
      Estimated at ₹14,517 crore, which is 2.6% of the GSDP, indicating prudent fiscal management and a healthy revenue-expenditure balance.
    • Fiscal Deficit:
      Pegged at ₹11,253 crore, equivalent to 2% of GSDP, remaining well within the FRBM limits and reflecting fiscal discipline.
    • Per Capita GSDP (2023–24):
      Stands at ₹1,15,960, showing a 9.1% rise compared to 2022–23, highlighting improved economic output and income levels per individual.

    3. Receipts and Expenditure

    Total Receipts (excluding borrowings): ₹1,25,400 crore

    This includes revenue from both state sources and central transfers:

    • State’s Own Tax Revenue:
      ₹35,200 crore (+4% over 2024–25 RE), reflecting stable tax base growth.
    • State’s Own Non-Tax Revenue:
      ₹25,856 crore (+29%), driven significantly by mineral revenue and the newly introduced mining cess.
    • Share in Central Taxes:
      ₹47,040 crore (+11%), indicating robust devolution from the Union Government.
    • Grants from the Centre:
      ₹17,057 crore (+22%), including centrally sponsored schemes and finance commission grants.

    Total Expenditure (excluding debt repayment): ₹1,36,653 crore

    A 12% increase over the previous year’s revised estimates, supporting both operational and capital needs:

    • Revenue Expenditure:
      ₹1,10,637 crore (+12%), covering salaries, subsidies, pensions, and day-to-day administrative costs.
    • Capital Outlay:
      ₹22,621 crore (+18%), signifying a push towards infrastructure and asset creation in sectors such as education, water supply, and urban development.
    • Debt Repayment:
      ₹8,747 crore, ensuring timely servicing of state liabilities.
    • Loans and Advances:
      ₹3,396 crore (−27%), a reduction likely aligned with efforts to prioritize direct capital investments.

    4. Major Policy Announcements

    • Higher Education: Launch of the Jharkhand Student Research and Innovation Policy, 2025; two new universities focused on skill and fintech education.
    • Skill Development: ₹585 crore allocated for skill training programs.
    • Animal Husbandry: ₹255 crore for Mukhyamantri Pashudhan Vikas Yojana (targeting 79,000 beneficiaries).

    5. Social Welfare Schemes

    • Mukhyamantri Maiya Samman Yojana:
      • Jharkhand Mukhyamantri Maiya Samman Yojana (JMMSY):
      • A landmark welfare initiative aimed at providing financial assistance to women.
      • Allocation: ₹13,363.35 crore.
      • Women between 18 to 50 years are eligible for a monthly cash support of ₹2,500.
      • This scheme alone accounts for nearly 11% of the state’s revenue receipts, underlining the government’s strong focus on women-centric development.
    • Mukhyamantri Sarvajan Pension Yojana:
      • ₹3,850 crore allocated.

    6. Sector-Wise Allocations

    Sector2025–26 BE (₹ crore)% Change from 2024–25 RE
    Social Welfare & Nutrition23,914+39%
    Education, Sports, Arts18,076+20%
    Rural Development16,538+5%
    Health & Family Welfare7,481+14%
    Police7,396−6%
    Energy6,655−6%
    Transport6,241+1%
    Agriculture & Allied6,007+9%
    Water Supply & Sanitation4,721+99%
    Urban Development3,425+47%

    7. Revenue and Fiscal Indicators

    • Revenue Surplus: Improved from 2.3% to 2.6% of GSDP.
    • Fiscal Deficit: Reduced from 2.3% to 2% of GSDP.
    • Outstanding Debt: Projected at 27% of GSDP (lower than 27.5% in 2024–25).
    • Power Sector Borrowing Room: Additional 0.5% of GSDP allowed under FRBM.

    8. Revenue Sources

    • State GST: ₹15,500 crore (+3%)
    • Excise: ₹3,000 crore (+7%)
    • Taxes on Vehicles: ₹2,400 crore (+5%)
    • Electricity Duties: ₹1,600 crore (+10%)

    Mining Cess: Estimated revenue of ₹6,400 crore (from newly introduced law in 2024).

    9. Healthcare and Education Infrastructure

    Medical Education Expansion:

    • Seven new medical colleges announced across the state in:
      • Ranchi, Khunti, Giridih, Jamshedpur, Dhanbad, Deoghar, and Jamtara.
    • This move aims to:
      • Improve access to quality healthcare.
      • Generate medical professionals locally.
      • Boost the healthcare economy in underserved districts.

    Higher Education Initiatives:

    • New universities to be established in:
      • Jamshedpur, Gumla, and Sahibganj.
    • These institutions will focus on research, innovation, skill development, and regional empowerment.

    10. Comparison with Other States

    • Jharkhand has higher than average allocations in rural development and water supply, but lower in education, health, and agriculture.
    SectorJharkhand %Average (All States)
    Education13.6%15.0%
    Health5.6%6.2%
    Rural Development12.4%5.1%
    Police5.5%4.1%
    Agriculture4.5%6.3%
    Water Supply & Sanitation3.5%2.5%



    11. Conclusion and Recommendations

    Conclusion

    The Jharkhand Budget 2025–26 marks a strong commitment to social justice, infrastructure development, and fiscal discipline. The government’s decision to maintain a revenue surplus and limit the fiscal deficit to 2% of GSDP reflects commendable prudence, especially given the state’s developmental challenges.

    A significant feature of the budget is its inclusive focus on welfare, especially for women (via Mukhyamantri Maiya Samman Yojana) and marginalized communities. The large allocation for rural development and education suggests a long-term view toward capacity building and equitable growth.

    Furthermore, the mining sector reforms and the newly introduced mineral cess could boost the state’s own revenues, reducing dependence on central transfers.

    However, there are areas that require strengthening to ensure sustained, inclusive, and broad-based development.

    Suggestions for Improvement

    1. Increase Investment in Health and Education

    • Jharkhand spends below the national average on health (5.6%) and education (13.6%).
    • To improve human capital indicators like literacy, school completion rates, and health outcomes, the state should gradually raise allocations to meet or exceed national averages.

    2. Enhance Capital Expenditure Efficiency

    • Although capital outlay has increased by 18%, prior year data shows underutilization.
    • Improve project planning, procurement processes, and execution capacity to ensure timely and quality delivery of public infrastructure projects.

    3. Strengthen Urban Infrastructure

    • Urban development has seen a 47% increase, but still receives a small share of total expenditure.
    • With urbanization growing, there’s a need to develop robust urban transport, housing, and civic infrastructure, particularly in Ranchi, Jamshedpur, and Dhanbad.

    4. Diversify Revenue Base

    • Mining accounts for ~80% of non-tax revenue. This poses a risk due to global commodity price fluctuations.
    • Jharkhand could:
      • Develop tourism (especially eco and cultural tourism).
      • Leverage IT and fintech investments (as indicated by the proposed fintech university).
      • Encourage small-scale industries and start-ups.

    5. Reconsider Cash Transfer Strategy

    • The Mukhyamantri Maiya Samman Yojana (₹13,363 crore) is nearly 11% of revenue receipts.
    • While the intent is noble, such schemes can strain state finances over time.
    • Suggested: Couple cash transfers with skills training or employment-linked conditions to enhance impact and sustainability.

    6. Improve Fiscal Transparency and Monitoring

    • Use digital tools to publicly monitor progress on schemes, fund utilization, and outcomes.
    • This would enhance accountability and citizen trust, and help curb leakages.

    Sources:

    FM Speech- Jharkhand Budget 2025-26

    Budget Summary- Jharkhand Budget 2025-26

    Budget at a Glance- Jharkhand Budget 2025-26