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  • Traditional Tribal Justice and Government system in Jharkhand

    Self-Governance System of Mundas

    • Language: Mundari (Austro-Asiatic Family)
    • Main Areas of Residence: Ranchi, Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, Palamu, Dhanbad
    • Population: Approximately 12.29 Lakhs
    • Main Purpose: Settlement of social, religious, economic, cultural, and criminal matters.

    Key Positions and Roles

    • Munda: Head of the village; leads administration, judicial functions, and tax collection.
    • Padha Raja: Head of a group of 12-20 villages (Padha); handles complex disputes (Honorarium: ₹1000).
    • Raja: Head of 22 Padhas; high-level decision-maker.
    • Thakur: Assistant to the Padha Raja.
    • Diwan: Minister of the Raja; responsible for implementation of orders (Garh Diwan and Raj Diwan).
    • Barkandaz (Soldier): Distributes notices; ensures security in Sabha.
    • Pandey: Responsible for the protection of documents and issuing notices.
    • Lal (Bardalal, Majhalal, Chhotelal): Acts as a lawyer-like debater in Sabha.
    • Pahan: Assistant to Munda; oversees religious functions.
    • Priest Pahan: Conducts worship during festivals.
    • Mahato: Distributes information; assistant to Munda and Pahan.
    • Purification Work: Involved in priestly duties.
    • Ghatwar: Distributes punishment materials.
    • Chawar Dolait: Responsible for washing hands and feet in Sabha.
    • Paan Khawas: Distributes lime-tobacco in Sabha.

    Dispute Resolution Process

    1. First Stage:
      • The aggrieved person informs the Munda.
      • Mahato spreads the information across the village.
      • A hearing takes place in the village Sabha.
      • Decision: Financial penalty or social boycott.
    2. Second Stage:
      • If unresolved at the village level, a Padha Sabha is convened.
      • Information is disseminated through Diwan and Barkandaz.
    3. Third Stage:
      • If unresolved in the Padha Sabha, the matter is taken to the Mahasabha of 22 Padharajas.
      • Final Decision: The decision is final and binding.

    Contributions of the Traditional System in Various Fields

    • Criminal Cases: Economic penalty; decisions based on human values.
    • Sexual Atrocities: Strict punishment; responsibility of the girl in case of marriage.
    • Development Work: Construction of roads, wells, and canals through Shramdaan (voluntary labor).
    • Land Disputes: Fair distribution by Munda.
    • Religious Work: Pahan sets the dates for religious activities.
    • Rights of Women: Limited rights on land for maintenance.
    • Hereditary Rights: The post is handed over only to eligible heirs.

    Akhada and Collective Decision Making

    • Location: Middle of the village, often under a tree (if available).
    • Function: Collective discussion and morality-based decisions; ensures quick and low-cost justice.

    Padha Panchayat Governance System (Uraon Tribe)

    Village Panchayat

    • Main Officials: Mahto (Chief), Pahan (Priest), Bhandari (Messenger).
    • Function: Dispute settlement, disaster management, and festival organization.

    Padha Panchayat

    • Group: 9-12 villages.
    • Chief: Padha Raja.
    • Other Officials: Diwan, Minister, Kotwar, Panbhara.
    • Function: Acts as an appellate court and enforces social rules.
    • Special Note: The “Mudma Mela” of Ranchi district is a prominent example of Padha Panchayat’s influence.

    Relationship Between Mahto and Padha Raja

    • The Mahto works under the Padha Raja.
    • The Padha Raja does not intervene without the Mahto’s request.

    Manki-Munda Self-Rule System

    Historical Background

    • Prevalent in western and eastern Singhbhum and Saraikela-Kharsawan districts.
    • Prior to British rule, the Porahat (Singhbhum) king ruled, but the ‘Ho’ community was not directly controlled by the king.

    Changes After British Rule

    • In 1821, the British occupied southern Singhbhum and named it Kolhan Government State. Captain Thomas Wilkinson was appointed in 1837 for administration.
    • Wilkinson Rule:
      • Munda: Hears civil cases.
      • Manki: Hears criminal cases.

    Objectives of Administration in Kolhan

    • Maintain local governance.
    • Establish a direct relationship between the government and the people.
    • Settle disputes through village panchayats.
    • Prevent the entry of outsiders into the area.

    Rights and Duties of Manki

    • Hereditary Post (Marusi): Manki’s role is hereditary.
    • Chief and Responsible Officer: Oversees the Peed (region).
    • Revenue Collection: Works with Munda for revenue collection; entitled to a 10% commission.
    • Police Officer: Arrests criminals and hands them over to authorities.
    • Government Orders: Acts in accordance with government orders.
    • Dispute Resolution: Resolves smaller disputes and reports to the Deputy Commissioner.

    Rights and Duties of Munda

    • Represents the village and its autonomy.
    • Has the right to settle fallow land.
    • Informs the government about the settlement of outsiders.
    • Oversees public resources in the village.
    • Acts as a police officer; reports crimes to district administration.
    • Ensures forest conservation and law enforcement.

    Other Key Officials in Kolhan

    • Manki Committee: Resolves complex disputes.
    • Dakuamunda: Assistant to Munda; informs about meetings.
    • Tehsildar: Assistant to Manki; handles revenue collection.
    • Diuri: Responsible for religious worship and social crime resolution.
    • Travel Diuri: Participates in worship of village deities.

    Manjhi-Pargana Governance System (Santhal Pargana)

    Structure

    • Parganait: Head of 15-20 villages.
    • Desh Manjhi / Mode Manjhi: Head of 5-8 villages.
    • Manjhi: Village head.
    • Pranik: Sub-Manjhi.
    • Godait: Secretary and Treasurer.
    • Jog Manjhi: Youth leadership.
    • Jog Pranik: Assistant to Jog Manjhi.
    • Bhagdo Praja: Leading member of Gram Sabha.
    • Laser Tangoy: Security head.
    • Naike: Head of religious functions.
    • Chowkidar: Responsible for catching criminals.

    Dispute Settlement Process

    1. Village-Level: Disputes are settled by the Manjhi.
    2. If Unresolved: The matter is escalated to the Desh Manjhi.
    3. Final Decision: The Parganait handles unresolved issues at the Parganait level.

    Criminal Case Resolution

    • Village-Level: Most crimes, except murder, are settled in the village.
    • Punishments: Ranges from a light penalty (karela danda) to a large monetary fine.
    • Payment Plans: If the criminal cannot pay, they are given a payment period.
    • Serious Crimes: No release is allowed for serious crimes.

    Settlement of Sexual Crimes

    • Reported by the victim or guardian.
    • A meeting is held where all parties (complainant, accused, and witness) present their case.
    • If Found Guilty:
      • A marriage proposal is made (if both parties agree).
      • If rejected, an appropriate punishment is imposed.

    Additional Traditional Systems

    1. Illegitimate Children and Marriage Laws:
      • Jog Manjhi: Assigned as the gotra for illegitimate children.
      • Daughters may be married with the consent of their father, and dowry is provided.
    2. Family and Village Disputes:
      • Disputes are first brought before the village’s Manjhi, and the matter is escalated if unresolved.
    3. Bitlaha Tradition:
      • Social ostracism is imposed if a person does not follow the punishment. The community works together to persuade the individual, and if ignored, a “Bitlaha” ceremony is held.
    4. Sohor Panchayat (Kharia Tribe):
      • Several villages form the Sohor Panchayat to resolve disputes not settled at the village level.
    5. Village-Level Panchayat System:
      • The Mahato and elders lead meetings to resolve disputes, especially related to land and festivals.
    6. Caste and Private Panchayat System:
      • Private Panchayats can be called for personal disputes, where decisions are made through trial by fire or oath.
    7. Santhal Panchayat System (Manjhi Than):
      • Five officers form the Panchayat: Manjhi, Pranik, Jog Manjhi, Jog Pranik, and Godait. Originally elected annually, the position became hereditary.
    8. Other Tribal Panchayats:
      • Other tribes like Bhumij, Chero, Oraon, Munda, Birhor, etc., had their separate panchayats with positions like Mahato, Dehri, Raja, Munda, Naya.

    Nagavanshi Governance System

    • King: Head of governance.
    • Allies: Army, landlords, jagirdars, Brahmins, Rajguru, and priests.
    • Revenue Administration: Managed by Diwan, Patwari, and Amin.
    • Parha Panchayats: Foundation of administration, though the influence of Kol and Oraon decreased over time, with Kayastha influence growing.

  • History of Jharkhand: From the post-Mughal era to modern times (1707–1942)

    1. After Aurangzeb’s Death (1707)

    • Mughal empire weakened, leading to anarchy in Jharkhand.
    • Local kings and landlords tried to strengthen their powers:
      • Ramgarh: Initially received ‘mansab’ from the Bengal Subedar but started acting independently.
      • Chhotanagpur: Nagavanshi kings asserted independence from Mughal representatives.
      • Palamu: Chero rulers remained under nominal Mughal control, but internal power struggles emerged.
      • Singhbhum: Local rulers were practically independent; Mughal control was weak.
    • Nawabs of Bengal (Murshid Quli Khan, Alivardi Khan):
      • Attempted tax collection and political control.
      • Frequent rebellions and local conflicts made it difficult.
    • By mid-18th century:
      • Jharkhand remained under Mughal/Nawabi rule only nominally.
      • Real control was in the hands of local kings.

    2. Modern Period (1765–1942)

    Diwani of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa (1765)

    • 12 August 1765: Shah Alam II granted Diwani rights to the East India Company.
    • Jharkhand (Chhota Nagpur) was included under Bihar but remained culturally and politically distinct.
    • Mughal and Maratha invasions occurred but no permanent rule was established.

    3. Entry of the British in Jharkhand

    Singhbhum Region (1760 Onwards)

    • British interest arose after capturing Midnapur.
    • Major Kingdoms:
      • Dhalbhum
      • Paurahat
      • Kolhan (Ho tribe territory)

    Campaigns and Battles

    • January 1767: Fergusson led an invasion:
      • Defeated kings of Jhargram, Jambani, Silda.
      • Captured Dhalbhum’s burning palace (22 March 1767).
      • Installed Jagannath Dhal as king, later replaced by Nimu Dhal.

    Treaties

    • 1773: Treaty with the King of Porahat.
    • Later similar treaties with Saraikela and Kharsawan.

    Kolhan and the Ho Tribe

    • Ho tribe remained independent from Mughal and Maratha rule.
    • Frequent invasions into Nagavanshi territories (1770, 1800).
    • British military actions:
      • 1820: Major Roughsedge – partial success.
      • 1821: Colonel Richard – Ho tribe surrendered.
      • Tax imposed: 1 Rupee per plough.
    • Kol Rebellion (1831–32, 1836–37):
      • Ho tribe revolted but eventually surrendered.
      • British administrative unit created in Kolhan.

    4. British Expansion in Palamu and Chhotanagpur

    Palamu (1771)

    • Occupied by Chero kings: Chiranjit Rai and Jayanath Singh.
    • British supported Gopal Rai:
      • March 21, 1771: Palamu fort captured by Captain Jacob Camek.
      • July 1771: Gopal Rai declared king, annual land revenue ₹12,000.

    Chhotanagpur

    • Nagavanshi King Darpanath Shah:
      • Accepted British subordination.
      • Annual tribute: ₹12,000.
      • Pledged help against the Marathas.

    Ramgarh and Hazaribagh

    • Raja Mukund Singh:
      • Initially opposed British influence.
      • Later proposed friendship under British pressure.
      • Gradual British influence increased.

    5. Administrative Reorganization

    Formation of Lohardaga Agency

    • Headquarters: Kisanpur, Lohardaga.
    • First Agent: Thomas Wilkinson (reported directly to Governor-General).
    • District Officer: Robert Ouseley appointed.

    Post-1854 Changes

    • South-West Frontier Agency abolished.
    • Chhotanagpur placed under Bengal’s Lieutenant Governor.
    • Formation of Chhota Nagpur Commissionerate:
      • Included Lohardaga, Hazaribagh, Manbhum, Singhbhum, Surguja, etc.

    6. Manbhum Area

    • Large region during the East India Company era, including:
      • Jharia, Katras, Parra, Raghunathpur, and others.
    • 1767 (Fergusson’s entry):
      • Five major independent landlords: Manbhum, Barabhum, Supur, Abhinagar, Chatana.
    • British struggle:
      • Military action initially failed.
      • Adopted annual settlement policy for control.

    7. Singhbhum and Kolhan (Further Developments)

    • 1837: Captain Wilkinson’s military action in Kolhan.
      • Villages Ipilasingi and Panga burnt.
      • Formation of Kolhan Government Estate.
      • First Deputy Commissioner: Tickell.
    • Wilkinson Rules (1833):
      • Administrative code of 31 rules implemented.
    • Seraikela and Kharsawan:
      • Gradually annexed in 1934.

    8. Santhal Pargana and Paharia Policy

    Early British Efforts

    • Peace efforts with hill tribes (‘Highlander’, ‘Hill Man’).
    • Tribal administration under the Khetauri family of Manihari.

    Disturbances

    • Maler tribe attacks during the famine of 1770.
    • Looting and violence increased.
    • Fear spread in Rajmahal and nearby regions.

    British Military Actions

    • Captain Brooke (1771-1774):
      • Suppressed forest terror.
      • Settled 283 villages.
    • Captain James Brown (1774-1778):
      • Proposed respecting traditional tribal systems.

    Augustus Cleveland’s Reforms (1779–1784)

    • Adopted justice and humane policy.
    • Cleveland Plan:
      • Engage hill tribes in agriculture and military.
      • Salary and uniforms for 400 tribal soldiers.
    • Effects:
      • Brought peace and reduced crime.
      • Markets set up for tribal trade.
    • Post-Cleveland:
      • Schemes declined after his death.
      • Paharia Panchayats weakened.

    Attempts at Reforms

    • Marquis of Hastings: Promised but did not fulfill support schemes.
    • Fombell: Tried to revive Paharia system.
    • Abdul Rasul Khan’s Corruption: Caused widespread discontent.

    9. Arrival and Struggles of the Santhals

    • Santhals settled in Bhagalpur, Birbhum, and later Damin-i-Koh.
    • Exploited by moneylenders, trapped in debt.
    • Faced severe injustice and exploitation.

    10. Santhal Rebellion (1855–1856)

    Causes

    • Bonded labor, exorbitant loans, land seizure.
    • Exploitation by landlords, moneylenders, and British officials.

    Leadership and Movement

    • Sidhu, Kanhu, Chand, Bhairav: Divine-inspired leadership.
    • 30 June 1855: 10,000 Santhals assembled at Bhognadih.
    • 7 July 1855: Killed Inspector Maheshlal Dutt.

    Conflict and Suppression

    • Spread rebellion across Bhagalpur and Birbhum.
    • British forces (Major Burrow, Colonel Bird) sent for suppression.
    • Rebellion suppressed by 1856.

    Consequences

    • Formation of Santhal Pargana:
      • Damin-i-Koh separated.
      • Sub-divisions: Dumka, Godda, Deoghar, Rajmahal.
    • Reforms:
      • Chieftaincy system recognized.
      • Direct contact between Santhals and administration.
      • Laws made to curb exploitation.
    • Legacy:
      • Raised awareness of tribal rights.
      • Influenced future Indian freedom movements.

    Maratha Incursions and Turmoil in Rajmahal (1742–1760): A Historical Account

    Between 1742 and 1751, Bengal and Bihar faced continuous Maratha invasions, significantly impacting regions such as Rajmahal and Santhal Pargana. Below is a detailed bullet-point chronicle of these events and their consequences:

    Maratha Invasions of Bengal and Bihar

    • 1742–1751: Period marked by recurring Maratha attacks on Bengal and Bihar.
    • 1743:
      • Two separate Maratha armies moved toward Bengal.
      • One was led by Raghuji Bhonsle.
      • The other, under Peshwa Balaji Rao, was sent to thwart Raghuji’s ambitions.
      • Balaji Rao entered Bihar from the south with 40,000 cavalry.

    Balaji Rao’s March Through Bihar

    • He advanced through:
      • Tikari
      • Gaya
      • Manpur
      • Bihar
      • Munger
      • Bhagalpur
    • Reached Rajmahal hills via Beniaganj, aided by a local Rajput.
      • British writer Holwell refers to “Beniaganj” near the foothills west of Rajmahal.
      • Another account by Rennel refers to “Beniya Gaong”, 20 miles southeast of Rajmahal.
      • Actual location likely corresponds to Baman Gawa, ~1 mile northwest of Tin-Pahar railway station, ~7 miles southwest of Rajmahal.
    • Balaji proceeded via Birbhum toward Murshidabad.

    Raghuji Bhonsle’s Parallel Advance

    • 1745: Raghuji Bhonsle marched toward Murshidabad through:
      • Birbhum
      • Santhal Pargana’s forests and hills

    1748: Afghan Revolt and Maratha Intrusion

    • 1748: Second Afghan rebellion broke out.
      • Alivardi Khan moved to Bihar to suppress it.
    • Meanwhile, Maratha army led by Mir Habib infiltrated via Santhal Pargana.
      • British records show they halted at Herupur (likely Hirapur in Pakur sub-division).
    • 1749: As Alivardi camped at Midnapore, Mir Habib’s troops looted Bengal.

    1757: Capture of Siraj-ud-Daulah in Rajmahal

    • Mir Daud, faujdar of Rajmahal and brother of Jafar Ali Khan, captured Siraj-ud-Daulah.
    • After the Battle of Plassey, Siraj was heading north by boat.
    • He disembarked at Rajmahal’s Ganga banks to rest.
    • Despite disguise, he was recognized by Dana Shah, a man previously punished by Siraj by having his nose and ears cut off.
    • Ironically, Siraj rested at the very spot where Dana Shah lived as a fakir.
    • Dana Shah informed Mir Daud, who immediately dispatched soldiers to arrest Siraj.
    • Siraj was captured and looted by the soldiers.
    • Mir Qasim, who later replaced Mir Jafar, seized Lutfunnisa’s jewel chest worth lakhs of rupees.
    • Siraj’s chief guard reached Rajmahal hours later, but it was too late.

    Death of Siraj-ud-Daulah

    • As Siraj was being taken to Murshidabad, Miran, son of Mir Jafar Ali Khan, murdered him.

    Death and Burial of Miran (1760)

    • 1760: While campaigning against the Nawab of Purnea, Miran died from a lightning strike in Champaran.
    • His body was brought back and buried at Rajmahal.
    • According to Sair-ul-Mutakhirin:
      • His body was transported in a coffin via the Ganga River.
      • Due to unbearable stench, the entourage was forced to stop at Rajmahal and bury him there.
      • A memorial still exists at the burial site.