“Ho and Kharwar Tribes of Jharkhand: Complete Guide for Competitive Exams”

Jharkhand has been home to tribal communities since the Paleolithic period. These communities have a deep-rooted historical and cultural significance in the region. The state’s tribal identity is evident in its languages, customs, festivals, and socio-economic practices.

Historical and Constitutional Recognition

• Tribal communities in Jharkhand are referred to by various names such as Vanvasi, Adivasi, Adim Jati, and Girijan.
• The term Adivasi literally means “original inhabitants” or “those living since ancient times“.
• The term Adivasi was first used by Gandhian leader Thakkar Bapa.
• Under Article 342 of the Indian Constitution, tribal communities are notified by the President of India.
• At the time of Jharkhand’s formation in 2000, the state had 30 Scheduled Tribes (STs).
• By 2003, the number increased to 32 with the inclusion of Kawar and Kol tribes.
• In 2022, the Puran tribe was proposed as the 33rd Scheduled Tribe of Jharkhand.

Classification of Tribes in Jharkhand

• Total tribes (2022): 33 (with Puran tribe’s inclusion).
• 25 tribes are classified as major tribes.
• 8 tribes are classified as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) or Primitive Tribes, namely:
  • Birhor*, Korwa*, Asur, Paharia, Maal Paharia, Sauria Paharia, Birjia, and Sabar.

Recent Constitutional Amendment

• Constitution (Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes) Order (Amendment) Act, 2022 has been passed by the Indian Parliament.
• Key proposals under this amendment:
  • Bhogta community to be excluded from the Scheduled Caste list.
  • Eight groups — Bhogta, Deshwari, Ganjhu, Daulatbandi (Dwalbandi), Patbandi, Raut, Majhia, Khairi (Kheri) — to be considered as synonyms of the Scheduled Tribe “Kharwar”.
  • Puran community to be newly included in Jharkhand’s ST list, raising the number of tribal groups to 33.
  • Tamaria/Tamadia to be treated as a synonym of the Munda tribe.

Tribal Economy and Lifestyle

• The economy of primitive tribes is pre-agricultural, primarily dependent on:
  • Hunting, gathering, and shifting cultivation.
• Tribal classification based on livelihood:

Category	Tribes
Agricultural Tribes	Santhal, Munda, Ho, Oraon, Bhumij
Hunter-Gatherer Tribes*	Birhor*, Korwa*, Kharia*
Nomadic Tribes	Sauria Paharia
Artisan Tribes	Karamali, Lohar, Chick Baraik, Mahli

• Birhor and Kharia tribes are believed to have migrated from the Kaimur hills.
• Munda tribe likely migrated through the Rohwas region to Chotanagpur.
• Oraons came from South India and settled in Rajmahal and Palamu.
• Jharkhand’s tribal groups share similarities with the Veddas of Sri Lanka and Aboriginal Australians, belonging to the Proto-Australoid race.
• Linguist George Grierson divided Jharkhand’s tribes into Austric and Dravidian language groups.
• Most tribal languages belong to the Austroasiatic and Dravidian families.

Tribal Languages

• Uraon tribe speaks Kurukh (Dravidian language).
• Mal Paharia and Sauria Paharia speak Malto (Dravidian).
• Remaining tribes primarily speak Austric languages.

Census 2011 Tribal Demographics

• Total tribal population in Jharkhand: 86,45,042
• Percentage of state population: 26.2%*
• Percentage of India’s total tribal population: 8.3%
• Jharkhand ranks 6th in tribal population among Indian states.

Major Tribal Groups by Population

Tribe	2011 %	2001 %
Santhal*	31.86%	34.01%
Oraon*	19.86%	19.62%
Munda*	14.22%	14.81%
Ho*	10.74%	10.51%
Kharwar*	2.88%	2.71%
Lohra*	2.50%	2.61%

• These four major tribes (Santhal, Oraon, Munda, Ho) comprise nearly three-fourths of the tribal population.

Primitive Tribal Group (PVTG) Population

Tribe	Percentage
Mal Paharia	46%
Sauria Paharia	16%
Korwa	12%
Paharia	9%
Asur	8%
Birhor	4%
Sabar	3%
Birjia	2%

• PVTGs form 3.38% of the tribal population and 0.88% of Jharkhand’s total population.

Social Structure and Culture

• 91% of tribal population resides in rural areas, only 9% in urban.
• Tribal society is largely patriarchal and typically follows a nuclear family structure.
• Gender equality is commonly observed in tribal communities.
• Gotra system is widely prevalent, known by names like Kili, Kunda, or Pari.
• Each gotra is associated with a totem (animal/tree/object), harming or using which is socially forbidden.
• Members of a gotra are believed to be descendants of a common ancestor.
• Parahiya tribe does not follow the gotra system.
• Same-gotra marriages are prohibited.
• Pre-engagement ceremony is unique to Banjara tribe.
• All tribes follow the Sindoor ritual during marriage.
• Only Khond tribe practices exchange of garlands (Jaimala).

Tribal Marriage Customs

Type	Details & Tribes
Bride Price Marriage (Kraya Vivah)	Groom’s family pays bride price. – Santhal (Sadayi Bapla) – Oraon – Ho – Kharia (Asli Vivah) – Birhor (Sadar Bapla) – Kawar
Exchange Marriage (Vinimay Vivah)	Reciprocal marriage between families. Also called Golhat/Golaiti Bapla. – Common among almost all tribes. – Munda tribe calls bride price Kari Gonong. – Birhor: Golhat Bapla, Santhal: Golaiti Bapla

• Marriages are usually officiated by tribal priests known as Pahan, Deori, or Naye. In some cases, Brahmins perform the rituals.
• Child marriage is generally not prevalent among Jharkhand’s tribes.

Tribal Marriage Customs in Jharkhand

Jharkhand’s tribal communities practice diverse and fascinating forms of marriages, many of which are exclusive to specific tribes. These customs are closely tied to their social beliefs and are reflective of tribal values and responsibilities.

1. Seva Vivah (Service Marriage)

• The groom serves his in-laws before marriage.
• Santhal tribe calls it ‘Jawai Bapla’; Birhor tribe calls it ‘Kiring Jawai Bapla’. ★

2. Hath Vivah (Forcible Marriage)

• The girl comes to live forcibly with her future husband.
• Known as:
  • ‘Anadar Vivah’ among Ho tribe,
  • ‘Bolo Bapla’ among Birhor tribe,
  • ‘Nirbolak Bapla’ among Santhal tribe. ★

3. Haran Vivah (Abduction Marriage)

• Involves kidnapping a girl and then marrying her.
• Practiced among: Oraon, Munda, Ho, Kharia, Birhor, Sauria Paharia, and Bhumij.
• Most prevalent among the Sauria Paharia tribe. ★

4. Sah-Palayan Vivah (Elopement Marriage)

• A boy and girl elope without parental approval.
• Practiced among: Munda, Kharia, Birhor. ★

5. Vidhwa Vivah (Widow Marriage)

• Marriage of a widow to another man.
• Practiced among: Santhal, Oraon, Munda, Banjara, Birhor. ★

Key Tribal Social Institutions in Jharkhand

• Akhra: Village square used for panchayat meetings or traditional dances.
• Sarna: Sacred worship site for nature-based rituals.
• Yuvagriha: Youth dormitory for learning social norms and training.

Religious and Dietary Practices

• All tribes except Tana Bhagat and Saphahor (followers of Singbonga) are generally non-vegetarian.
• Ancient religion: Sarna Dharma, which centers on nature worship.
• Festivals are primarily agricultural and nature-oriented.
• Sun is the principal deity in most tribes, known by different names.

Funeral Customs

• Both burial and cremation are practiced.
• Christian Oraons exclusively practice burial. ★

Economic Activities

• Primary occupation: Agriculture.
• Others include: Animal husbandry, hunting, collection of forest products, craftsmanship, and labor.
• Haat (weekly market) plays a major role in economic exchange.

Unique Facts about Turi Tribe

• They are nomadic and visit homes where births or deaths have recently occurred.
• Use fingers to paint their walls using soft, wet mud.
• Decorate homes with plant and animal motifs.

Santhal Tribe: Unique Social and Marital Practices

Santhal Clans and Totems ★

• The Santhal tribe has 12 main clans (gotras/kilis) and 144 sub-clans (khut).
• Gotras and their totems include:
  • Marandi – Madra grass
  • Hembrom – Betel leaf
  • Hansda – Wild goose
  • Soren, Tuddu – Birds
  • Bedia – Sheep
  • Murmu – Blue bull
  • Besra – Hawk
  • Chonde – Lizard
  • Baskey – Snake
  • Kisku – Noted for inter-clan marital restrictions

Inter-clan marriage is strictly prohibited.

Child marriage is not practiced.

Monogamy is the norm.

Types of Santhal Marriages (Bapla) ★

Marriage Type	Distinctive Feature
Kiring Bapla ★	Most common; marriage arranged through mediator
Golaiti Vivah	Practiced by the poor; no bride price; bride brought home and sindoor applied
Gharadi Jawai Bapla	Groom stays at bride’s home; no bride price
Apgir Bapla	Love marriage with panchayat approval
Itut Bapla	Groom applies sindoor forcibly during an event; later bride’s family accepts it
Nirbolak Bapla	Girl forcibly lives with chosen partner, marriage approved later
Bahadur Khapla	Jungle elopement marriage
Raja Raji Bapla	Community-approved love marriage
Sanga Bapla	Marriage of widow/divorced woman with widower/divorced man
Kiring Jawai Bapla	Marriage after pregnancy before wedlock
Sadai Bapla	Marriage by mutual consent; includes Taka Chal ceremony (bride price payment) ★

🔸 Pone (Bride price) is an essential part of Santhal marriages.
🔸 During divorce, the bride price is returned. ★
🔸 The main ritual of marriage is Sindoor Daan (vermilion application). ★

Santhal Justice and Naming Traditions

Social Justice

• The strictest punishment in Santhal society is Bithlaha, a form of social ostracism for illicit relations. ★

Naming Customs

• First child named after paternal grandparents.
• Second child named after maternal grandparents. ★

Santhal Village Social System

Role	Function
Manjhi (★)	Village head; holds administrative and judicial powers
Pranik/Pramanik	Deputy to Manjhi
Godaith/Gudait	Messenger
Jogi	Manjhi’s assistant

• Manjhi Than is the central platform or chabutra at the village head’s house where panchayats are held.
• Santhal women are not allowed at Manjhi Than or Jaher Than (sacred grove).

Festivals and Rituals

• Santhal festivals begin in the month of Ashadh (June-July). ★
• Umihai: Christian Santhals’ version of rituals.
• Chhathiyar: Name-giving ceremony — on the 5th day for boys, 3rd day for girls.
• Gandi: Neem-leaf khichdi prepared at birth. ★

Santhal Tribe: Culture, Festivals, and Way of Life

Santhal Tribe Overview

• The Santhals are one of the largest tribal groups in Jharkhand.
• Primarily an agrarian community transitioning into full-time agriculture.
• Their major deity is Singbonga (Thakur), believed to be the creator and a solar deity.
• Second most important deity is Marang Buru.
• The village deity is Jaher-Era, whose abode is called Jaher Than (usually near Sal or Mahua groves).
• Household deity: Odak Bonga.
• Family deity: Abge Bonga.
• Village priest is known as Nayke.
• Ancestors and spirits are collectively called Hapramko.

Santhal Festivals and Rituals

Festival	Month	Features
Sohrai	Kartik	Celebrated for 5 days; dedicated to cattle and post-harvest thanksgiving.
Baha	Falgun	Celebrated when flowers bloom on Sal trees; 3-day spring festival.
Sakarat	End of Paush	Major winter festival.
Magh Sim	Magh	Involves sacred water rituals like Holi.
Karam	Bhadon	2-day harvest festival for family well-being.
Erok’	Ashadh	Observed for seed germination.
Hariyad	Sawan	Celebrated when paddy starts turning green.
Japar	Aghan	Prayed for agricultural prosperity.

Santhal Art and Cultural Features

• Santhals are highly skilled in painting and weaving.
• Famous for a unique art form called Comb-Cut Painting, which depicts utensils and daily life items.
• Tattooing (Godna) is prevalent among both genders.
  • Males usually have coin-shaped tattoos on the left arm.
  • Girls avoid marrying men without such tattoos.
• Santhals call months as ‘Bonga’.
• The year begins with ‘Magh Bonga’.
• Houses have two types of roofs:
  • Ekchala – slope on all four sides
  • Doobala – slope on two sides

Santhal Cuisine and Drinks

• Primary food: Dal-bhaat and vegetables (locally called Daka-Uru).
• Maize porridge is known as Jondra-Daka.
• Famous for Hadia or Pochai, fermented rice-based local liquor.
• Meals are named as:
  • Basakyak – breakfast
  • Majwan – lunch
  • Kavok – dinner

Religious Practices

• Ancestor spirits Hapramko are appeased to avoid calamities like famine and disease.
• Rituals like worship, animal sacrifices, and offerings are made to keep them pleased.
• Santhal women are considered experts in magic and witchcraft.
• Both cremation and burial practices exist for the dead.

Oraon (Uraon) Tribe: Identity, Language, and Traditions

Demographic and Geographical Distribution

• Oraons are the second-largest tribal group in Jharkhand.
• Constitute 19.86% of the total tribal population.
• High concentration in South Chotanagpur and Palamu divisions.
• Also reside in Santhal Pargana, North Chotanagpur, and Kolhan divisions.

Identity and Language

• Call themselves ‘Kudukh’, meaning “human”.
• Speak the Kudukh language, part of the Dravidian language family.
• Known as the most educated and aware tribe in Jharkhand.
• Have seen the most socio-economic development among all tribes.
• Script: Tolong Siki, invented by Narayan Oraon.
• Font for typing: Kelly Tolong.

Clan System (Gotra)

• Scientific study first done by Sharachandra Roy.
• 68 clans exist, but mainly divided into 14 principal clans (Killi).

Gotra	Totem/Symbol
Kispoḍa	Wild boar
Barla/Bara	Banyan tree
Khoya	Ant
Kerketta	Sparrow
Kindo	Fish
Khes	Paddy
Khakha	Crow
Khalkho	Fish
Ekka	Tortoise
Lakra	Tiger
Toppo	Small bird
Bakhla	Grass
Kujur	Vine
Minz	Snake-like plant

Cultural and Social Practices

• Tattooing (Godna) is culturally significant, especially for women.
• Exogamy: Marriage within the same clan is prohibited.
• Common forms of marriage:
  • Negotiated marriage (requires bride price).
  • Service marriage: Groom serves the bride’s family for a period.
  • Widow remarriage is allowed.
• Marriage within the same village is prohibited.
• To establish bonds between families, a Sahiya (Sahiyaro) is chosen after every 3rd harvest, during a special Sahiya selection ceremony.

Miscellaneous Highlights

• Oraons are proficient in weaving, painting, and farming.
• Known for their deep respect for ancestral spirits and elaborate rituals.
• Their vibrant festivals, social cohesion, and artistic excellence form an essential part of Jharkhand’s ethnic mosaic.

Oraon Tribe of Jharkhand

1. Social Structure and Relationships

• Friendship within the tribe holds cultural significance.
  • Girls call their close friends “Goi” or “Karamdar”.
  • Boys use the terms “Lar” or “Sangi”.
  • After marriage, wives of friends address each other as “Larin” or “Sangini”.
• Property rights in the family are exclusively held by males.

2. Social Terminology and Village Administration

• Community Institutions:
  • Akhra – Village dancing ground.
  • Panchora – Village council system.
  • Pahan – Religious head of the village.
  • Mahato (Mukhiya) – Village headman.
  • Ghamkariya – Youth dormitory.
• Clothing:
  • Males wear Keriya during festivals.
  • Females wear Khanriya.
• The tribe follows a patriarchal and patrilineal social structure.
• Their major dance form is called “Yadur”*.

3. Festivals and Seasonal Hunts

• Celebrated events include:
  • Visu Sendra – Celebrated in Vaishakh (April–May).
  • Fagu Sendra – Celebrated in Phagun (February–March).
  • Jeth Shikar – Hunting at the onset of monsoon.
• Dauraha Shikar – Informal hunting practice.
• The tribal year begins post-harvest in November–December.

4. Major Festivals

• Karma – Celebrated on Ekadashi of Shukla Paksha in Bhadon.
• Sarhul, Khaddi (celebrated on Tritiya of Shukla Paksha in Chait).
• Jatra – Held in Jeth, Agahan, and Kartik in honor of Dharmes Devta.
• Sohrai – Celebrated on Kartik Amavasya in honor of cattle.
• Fagu Parab – Similar to Holi, held in Phagun.

5. Agricultural Practices

• After settling in Chotanagpur, the Oraons cleared forests to start farming.
  • These were called “Bhuinhars” and their lands “Bhuinhar Bhumi”.
  • Their villages were called “Bhuinhar Gaon”.
• Later settlers were termed “Rayat” or “Jeth Rayat”.
• “Pasari” – A unique custom of labor exchange, especially in agriculture.
• Staple food includes rice, forest birds, and fruits.
• They do not eat monkey meat.
• Hadia (local rice beer) is a popular traditional drink.

6. Religion and Beliefs

• Chief deity: Dharmes or Dharmi, equated with the Sun for his life-giving and illuminating powers.
• Key deities:
  • Marang Buru, Thakur Dev
  • Deehwar – Ancestor spirit
  • Pahad Devta – Mountain deity
  • Gram Devta – Village deity
  • Seemant Devta – Border deity
  • Kul Devta – Clan deity
• Bhelwa Puja – Performed during the sowing season.
• Goreya Puja – Annual village welfare ritual.
• Pahan is the religious head and Pujar is his assistant.
• Sarna – Sacred place of worship.
• Sasan – Dwelling place of ancestors’ souls.

7. Death Rituals and Beliefs

• “Hadbora Sanskar” – Held in January for immersing bones of clan members in the river.
  • Known as “Gotra-Khandi”.
  • The soul is believed to unite with ancestors – “Kohabenja”.
• The Oraons believe in magic and witchcraft.
  • A person who performs black magic is called “Mati”.
• Hindus cremate the dead, while Christian Oraons bury the dead and follow Christian rites.

Ghumkuriya or Dhumkuriya (Youth Dormitory System)

• A traditional training dormitory for tribal boys and girls.
• Entry starts around 10–11 years of age and ends with marriage.
• Initiation generally takes place once every 3 years during Sarhul festival.
• Three ranks of members:
  • Puna Jokhar – New entrants.
  • Majh Jokhar – After 3 years.
  • Koha Jokhar – Senior members.
• Separate sections:
  • Jokh Edpa – Boys’ dormitory.
  • Pel-Edya – Girls’ dormitory.
• Head of Jokh Edpa is Dhangar or Mahato.
• Assistant is known as Kotwar.
• Female in charge of Pel-Edya is Badki Dhangarin.
• Officials are rotated every 3 years during the “Mukhia Handi” ceremony (symbolic hadia drinking event).

Munda Tribe of Jharkhand

1. Demographics and Identity

• Also known as “Kol”.
• Third largest tribal group in Jharkhand.
• Constitute 14.22% of the tribal population*.
• The term “Munda” generally means a distinguished person or a village political head.
• Belong to the Proto-Australoid racial group.
• Speak the Mundari language, part of the Austro-Asiatic language family.
• They refer to themselves as *“Hodoko” and call their language “Horo Jagar”.

2. Migration History

• Migrated frequently due to external invasions.
• After Aryan invasions, they settled in Azamgarh (Uttar Pradesh).
• Migration route included:
  • *Kalanzar → Garhchitra → Garh-Nagarwar → Garh-Dharwar → Garh-Pali → Garh-Pipra → Mandar Pahar → Bijanagarh → Hardinagarh → Laknaugadh → Nandangarh (Bettiah, Bihar) → Rijgarh (Rajgir, Bihar) → Ruidasgarh → finally settled in Jharkhand (Omedanda, Burmu)**.
• *Arrived in Jharkhand around 600 BCE.

3. Present-day Distribution

• Densely concentrated in Ranchi, followed by Gumla, Simdega, West Singhbhum, and Seraikela-Kharsawan.
• Munda of Tamar region are called Tamadi Munda or Patar Munda.
• As per 2022 Constitutional Amendment, “Maria / Tamadia” were added as synonyms for the Munda tribe.
• The Munda tribe is *predominantly found in Jharkhand but now also live in adjoining states due to modern communication and transport.

4. Land and Language

• The land developed by Mundas is known as “Khuntkatti Bhumi”.
  • “Khunt” refers to lineage or family in their administrative system.
• Mandari script of the Mundari language was invented in 1982 by Rohidas Singh Nag of Odisha.*

Munda Tribe

Social Stratification and Family Structure

• The Munda society is divided into subgroups such as Thakur, Manki, Munda, Babu Bhandari, and Patar.
• Gotra exogamy is strictly followed; marriages within the same gotra (clan) are forbidden.
• The majority of Munda families are nuclear, patriarchal, and patrilineal.
• The clan or lineage system is called Khet, and gotra is referred to as Keeli*.
• British ethnographer Rizley documented around 340 gotras of the Munda tribe*.

Marriage Customs

• The most popular form is arranged marriage.
• Other marriage types include:
  • Raji-Khushi Marriage – based on mutual consent.
  • Haran Marriage – abduction of the bride.
  • Seva Marriage – the groom pays the bride price through service at the bride’s house.
  • Hatth Marriage – the bride forcefully enters the groom’s house and stays there until marriage.
• The bride price is known as Gonong Taka*.
  • If a woman initiates divorce, she must return the bride price*.
• Divorce is referred to as Sakamchari*.

Local Governance and Social Institutions

• Youth dormitory: Gitioda*.
• Engagement: Arandi*.
• Bride Price: Kuri Gong*.
• Village head: Munda*.
• Village council: Gram Panchayat.
• Head of the Gram Panchayat: Hatu Munda*.
• Head of regional council (formed from multiple villages): Manki*.
• Clan/Lineage organization: Parha or Padhha*.
• Council ground: Hatu Akhara*.

Cultural Symbols and Totems

• Each clan has a totem animal or symbol:
  • Nag (Snake), Soy (Catfish), Horo (Turtle), Bodra (Peacock), Birni (Bird), Topno (Red Ant), Barjo (Kusum Fruit), Bhenga (Horse), Purti (Crocodile), Hansa (Swan), Aid (Fish), and Venga Dhan (Rice).

Economic Activities

• Primarily engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry.
• Popular land types:
  • Panku – fertile land.
  • Nagra – medium productivity.
  • Khirsu – sandy soil.
• Soma Singh Munda categorized the Munda tribe into 13 subgroups, with Mahli Munda and Kampat Munda being the most prominent*.

Important Folklore

• “Soso Yoga”, a tribal ballet-style tale, reflects the heritage and evolution of the Munda tribe*.

Gender Taboos and Rituals

• Women are prohibited from:
  • Sowing paddy.
  • Carrying ploughs on their heads.
  • Visiting cremation grounds.
  • Accepting Sarhul offerings if they are daughters of the village.
• Traditional dress:
  • Men: Batoi or Karwat.
  • Women: Pareya.

Festivals

• Sarhul/Baha* – Spring festival, celebrated on Chaitra Shukla Tritiya.
• Karma* – Worship of nature on Bhadrapada Shukla Ekadashi.
• Sohrai* – Festival for cattle on Kartik Amavasya*.
• Roapuna – Observed during sowing season.
• Batauli – Minor version of Sarhul celebrated before ploughing in Ashadha.
• Phagu, Mage, Jatra, Jomna, Burup – seasonal and tribal-specific festivals.

Religious Beliefs

• Primary deity: Singbonga (solar deity)*.
  • Worship involves white flowers, white offerings, or a white cock*.
• Other deities:
  • Hatu Bonga – clan deity.
  • Desauli – village goddess.
  • Khunthankar/Ora Bonga – household deity.
  • Ikir Yoga, Buru Bonga – water and hill gods.
• Sarna: Sacred grove, tribal place of worship.
• Pahan: Village priest*.
• Pujar or Panbhra: Priest’s assistant.
• Dehri: Religious priest.
• Devra: Witch doctor or shaman.
• Sasan: Burial place of ancestors.
  • Sasan Diri or Hargadi*: Stone placed in memory of the dead.

Ho Tribe

Demographics and Classification

• Fourth largest tribe in Jharkhand with 10.74% tribal population*.
• Belongs to the Proto-Australoid racial group*.
• Kolhan division is the major concentration area of the Ho tribe.

Language and Script

• Speak the Ho language, part of the Austro-Asiatic (Mundari) family*.
• Developed their own script called Warang Chiti*.
  • Invented by Lako Bodra*.

Social System

• Traditionally matriarchal, now patriarchal.
• Family and clan organization based on Keeli (Gotra).
• Divided into more than 80 gotras*.

Marriage Practices

• Gotra exogamy is practiced; intra-gotra marriages are forbidden.
• Preference for cross-cousin marriages, especially with maternal uncle’s daughter or son.

Gotra and Totem Symbols

Some examples:

• Purti – Rat.
• Balmuch – No clear symbol mentioned.
• Barla – Banyan tree.
• Jojo – Tamarind tree.
• Hembrom – Lasoda (Cordia tree)*.

The Ho Tribe of Jharkhand

Marriage Customs

• Polygamy is prevalent in the Ho tribe.*
• “Adi Vivah” is considered the most respectable form of marriage, where the groom initiates the marriage proposal through a known intermediary.*
• Other forms of marriage include:
  • Dikku Adi Vivah – influenced by Hindu traditions; practiced in Hindu-dominated villages.*
  • Andi-Oportipi Vivah – where the groom abducts the bride.*
  • Rajee-Khushi Vivah – the bride forcefully enters the groom’s house until the marriage is finalized.*

Social Structure

• Various indigenous titles exist for social positions:
  • Yuvagrih (Youth dormitory)* – Akhara situated in the middle of the village.
  • Gram Pradhan (Village Head)*
  • Panchayat Leader (Manaki)*
  • Deputy Munda (Dakua)*
  • Munda and Gotiara – associated with village-level roles.
  • Etay Turtu – Judicial head of Parha (a tribal council).*

Economic Structure

• The Ho tribe follows a traditional “Munda-Manaki” self-governance system, which reflects a small democratic framework.*
• *Women are not allowed to use or touch the plough or bow and arrow.
• Generally, Ho men do not grow moustaches or beards.*
• Their sacred drink is called “Ili”, which is also offered to deities.*
• *Agriculture is their primary occupation.
• Classification of land:
  • Bero – Low and fertile land.
  • Wadi – Paddy cultivation land.*
  • Goda – Less fertile land used for coarse grain cultivation.
• *Alcohol consumption is a favorite pastime.

Religious Beliefs

• Chief deity: Singbonga*
• Other significant deities:
  • Pahui Bonga – Village deity.
  • Oti Bodom – Earth deity.
  • Marang Buru – Mountain deity.
  • Nage Devta – Snake deity.
  • Desauli Bonga – Rain deity.
• Religious setup:
  • Sacred space in the kitchen corner called “Adig” for ancestral spirits.*
  • Religious ceremonies performed by *Dewri (Priest).
  • Belief in ghosts and witchcraft is widespread.*
  • Cremation and burial both exist as funeral customs.*

Festivals

• Major festivals: Maghe, Baha, Umri, Horo, Jomanna, Kolom,* etc.
• Most of these festivals are linked to agricultural activities.

The Kharwar (Kherwar) Tribe of Jharkhand

Demographics and Origin

• Fifth largest tribal group in Jharkhand.*
• Primarily found in Palamu division, also present in Hazaribagh, Chatra, Ranchi, Lohardaga, Santhal Parganas, and Singhbhum.*
• The name “Kherwar” is derived from Kherijhar.*
• Believed to be related to Kharavelas of Odisha.
• Consider themselves descendants of Suryavanshi Rajput King Harishchandra Rohitashwa.*
• In Palamu and Latehar, known as “Atharah Hajari” (Eighteen Thousand).

Identity and Classification

• A martial (warrior) tribe known for their truthfulness and bravery.*
• Belong to the Proto-Australoid racial group.*
• Language: Kherwari, part of the Austro-Asiatic language family.*
• 2022 constitutional amendment included sub-communities like *Bhogta, Deshwari, Ganjhu, Daulatbandi, Patbandi, Raut, Majhiya, and Kheri (Kherhi) in the Scheduled Tribe list.

Sub-Tribes

• Sunder’s classification: Majhiya, Ganjhu, Patbandi, Duasdi, Bhogta, Kheri.*
• Dalton’s classification: Bhogta, Manjhi, Raut, Mahto.*

Social Structure

• No youth dormitory (Ghunkuria) institution found in Kharwar society.*
• Patrilineal and patriarchal family setup.
• *Equal distribution of property among all sons.
• *Child marriage is respected and practiced.
• *Polygamy exists.
• Marriage types:
  • Dola Vivah – Conducted at the groom’s house when the bride is poor.*
  • Chadhwa Vivah – Conducted at the bride’s house.
• Rijniya – When a barren woman’s sister is married to her brother-in-law.
• *Mutual divorce is socially accepted.

Community Governance

• Key institutions:
  • Gram Panchayat
  • Baithaki – Village council
  • Mukhiya (Palamu), Baiga (Shahabad) – Village heads
  • Chatti/Chat – Panchayat of 4 villages
  • Sataura – Panchayat of 7 villages
  • Pachaura – Panchayat of 5 villages

Economic Life

• Land was allotted to Baiga priests as “Baigai Bhoomi”.
• A portion (⅓) of one sheaf of paddy harvested by Baiga was called “Poja”.
• The village or group leader is called “Pradhan” – a hereditary position.
• Men wear dhoti, bundis, and turbans; *women wear sarees.
• *Main occupation: Agriculture.
• Traditional occupation: *Making catechu from khair trees.
• Poor Kharwars worked as agricultural laborers and made baskets and other items from bamboo.
• Morning meal: “Lukma”, Afternoon: “Kaleba”, Night: “Biyari”*.

Festivals

• Major festivals include Sarhul, Karma, Nawakhani, Sohrai, Jitiya, Durga Puja, Diwali, Ramnavmi, Phagu.*

Religious Beliefs

• Chief deity: *Singbonga
• Religious rituals performed with help of **Pahan or Baiga (religious heads)*.
• In extreme distress or illness, they seek help from *Ojha or Mati (sorcerer).
• *“Mati” is a person believed to practice witchcraft.