Jharkhand, particularly the Chotanagpur region, has witnessed a rich tapestry of religious evolution influenced by indigenous traditions, Dravidian cultures, Aryan rituals, and later external forces like Islam, Christianity, and Hinduism. Here’s an in-depth exploration:

Early Cultural and Religious Influences

• During the pre-Aryan era, Dravidian elements significantly influenced the region’s early civilization.
• Worship of Lord Shiva as Mahadev, along with the veneration of mother goddesses, originated from Dravidian traditions.
• The beginning of trade, administration, and structured social life were also attributed to Dravidian settlers.
• Early agriculture began with ‘slash-and-burn’ or jhum cultivation.

Buddhist and Jain Influence

• The era of Buddhist and Jain monks left a notable impact on the native tribal communities.
• Tribes were influenced by the teachings of these monks, gradually adopting structured social practices.

Development of Social and Religious Structures

• Social life started being regulated by the traditional systems like:
  • Pahans (tribal priests)
  • Mundas (village heads)
  • Parha Panchayats (community councils)
• With the arrival of the Nagvanshis (a ruling dynasty), monarchy began to take root.
• This period saw the natural growth of Brahmanism and priesthood.

Rise of New Social Classes

• Emergence of:
  • Mahajans (moneylenders)
  • Bhandaris (storekeepers)
  • Shilpis (artisans)
• These classes contributed to the stratification of society.

Mughal Period and Administrative Evolution

• Social life underwent substantial transformation during Mughal rule.
• Creation of administrative titles like:
  • Chaudhary
  • Mukaddam
  • Ghatwari
  • Kanungo
  • Diwan
• These changes led to the rise of a strong middle class.

Tribal Displacement and External Infiltration

• Traditional ‘Khutkatti’ (self-reliant tribal settlements) began to see the entry of outsiders.
• Original tribal self-sufficiency started eroding.
• During the medieval period, not only did Hindus and Muslims arrive in Chotanagpur, but new tribal communities like:
  • Cheros and Kharwars in Palamu
  • Santals in Hazaribagh
• Displacement followed:
  • Original tribes like Birhor, Kharia, and Asur were forced to migrate to remote regions.

Impact of Hindu and Muslim Culture

• Tribal life was heavily influenced by Hindu-Muslim culture:
  • Adoption of caste practices and priest-led rituals.
  • Tribal deities like Singbonga and Auri Bonga became anthropomorphized.
  • Hindu deities were adapted:
    • Shiva became Mahadev Bonga
    • Parvati became Chandi Bonga
    • Sun God in Kharia tribe was called Bela Bhagwan
• Tribes began practicing:
  • Sindoor daan
  • Fasting
  • Ritual bathing
  • Idol worship

Cultural Assimilation and Syncretism

• Tribal people started dressing in traditional Hindu attire:
  • Pagri, dhoti, and sari
  • Women began wearing lehengas, bangles, and earrings
• They started organizing festivals like Hindu fairs (Jatra Melas).
• Tribal influence on non-tribal ‘Sadan’ communities was also visible:
  • Adoption of tribal practices like Bahurata and Senayijira.
  • Sadan women began using tribal jewelry like hansuli, tarki, and churla.

Tribal Religious Beliefs

Munda Tribe

• Belief in nature worship and ancestor veneration.
• Singbonga is their supreme deity.
• Marangburu is another important deity.

Oraon Tribe

• Their supreme deity is Dharmes or Dharmi, similar to the Hindu Brahma.
• During British rule, many converted to Christianity under missionary influence.
• They were convinced Christianity could protect them from evil spirits and witches.

Santal Tribe

• Main religion is nature worship.
• Principal deities:
  • Thakur Jiu
  • Marang Buru
• They believe that family and village well-being depends on the grace of:
  • Bongaguru
  • Hapramako (ancestral spirits)
• Other deities include:
  • Gosai Era, Modeko, Tuiko, Johar, Esh, Odak Bonga, etc.
• Nineteenth-century saw Christian missionary influence:
  • By the time of independence, nearly 3% Santals had become Christians.
  • Christian Santals were called ‘Umehad’.
  • Some also converted to Islam, Sikhism, or Jainism, though in negligible numbers.
  • Religious tolerance increased while orthodoxy declined.

Religious Philosophy of the Oraons

• Their religious concepts predate their arrival in Chotanagpur.
• Belief in Dharmes as a benevolent yet strict deity, needing appeasement.
• No belief in divine punishment for sins in this life or afterlife.
• Weak concept of guilt—killings are not necessarily seen as sinful.
• High tendency for revenge; witch-killing is a routine act.
• Conversions to Christianity occurred due to perceived failure of their deities to protect against evil forces.

Unique Practices Among Oraons

• Worship Marang Buru and various Bonga spirits.
• Other deities include Darha, Sarna Budhi, and Chandi.
• Use of symbolic stones or clay lumps to represent gods.
• Animal sacrifices (including buffaloes) were common.
• Darha is worshipped as an evil spirit by planting an iron ploughshare replaced every three years.
• Belief in spirits dwelling in stones, rivers, roads, and groves.
• Childbirth-related spirits: Women who die during labor are believed to become witches with reversed feet.

Oraon Shamans (Bhagats)

• Some Oraons identify as ‘Bhagats’ with spiritual initiation.
• Worship Shiva and keep idols of Ganesh at home.
• Do not associate with non-Bhagat Oraons and avoid joint feasting or dancing.

Santal Religious Practices

• Blend of ghost-worship and deity worship.
• Worship focused on ensuring village and family prosperity.
• Calamities were believed to be caused by angry spirits or gods.
• Main gods:
  • Singbonga (Sun god)
  • Marang Buru
  • Gosai Era, Modeko, Tuiko
  • Jaher Era
  • Manjhi Hadam Bonga
  • Odak Bonga (household deity)
  • Pitar Bonga (ancestral deity)
• Manjhi Thaan: Sacred platform in the village center for ancestor worship.
• Jaher Thaan: Sacred grove for village deities, located slightly outside the village.
• Women are not allowed to perform rituals at these shrines.
• Belief in witchcraft, ghosts, and sorcery is prevalent.

19th Century Religious Reform Movements

• Emergence of reform movements among Santals.
• Emphasis on monotheism and reduced influence of ghosts and spirits.
• Rise of more tolerant and inclusive religious philosophies.

Religious Life in Jharkhand: A Comprehensive Overview of Tribal Beliefs

Jharkhand is a vibrant mosaic of diverse religious traditions, where indigenous belief systems, Hinduism, Christianity, and other religions coexist. The religious lives of tribal communities reflect deep cultural roots, evolving practices, and external influences.

General Trends and Changes in Tribal Religion

• The importance of purity and vegetarianism increased over time among some tribal communities.
• Animal sacrifice and alcohol consumption, once central to rituals, have declined in importance.
• Supernatural entities like spirits and ancestral ghosts lost significance to Hindu deities like Shiva, Durga, and Saraswati.
• Christianity began influencing tribes like the Santhals, with 3% of them converting by the time of Indian independence.
  • Christian Santhals came to be known as Umṛḍhāṛ.
• Some Santhals also adopted Islam, Sikhism, and Jainism, indicating the liberalization of Santhal religion under external influences.

Santhal Religious Beliefs

• The supreme deity of the Santhals is Singbonga, associated with the Sun.
• Other deities dwell in hills and forests, with worship conducted through traditional priests known as Baiga.
• Worship of ancestors is common.
• To rid evil forces like witches, Sokha rituals are performed with the help of Ojhas (spirit healers).
• By the 19th century, some Asurs had adopted Christianity and came to be known as Jat Asurs.

Birhor Beliefs

• Major deities: May, Singbonga, Burubonga, Badhvir, Lagu Buru, Hanuman Bir, and Hudang Bir.
• Worship is led by the Naya (priest), especially before:
  • Drinking water
  • Gathering forest produce
  • Going hunting
  • After a death in the family

Korwa Tribe Religion

• Influenced by Hinduism but retain Singbonga as the supreme deity.
• Other deities include:
  • Indra (rain god)
  • Dharti (Earth goddess, the provider of grain)
  • Gamelt (village guardian)
  • Raxel (protector of livestock)
  • Darha (protector from evil spirits)
  • Chandi (protector of the family)
  • Sokha (household well-wisher)
• Priests (Baiga) are responsible for appeasing deities and spirits.
• Evil supernatural beings include: Daya, Chakre Baimat, Reiya Pankshi, Bal Kumber, Bal Linga, Daha, Vahan Pichas, Bhūrkhori, Dakini, Karsangharin, Dano Mari, and Bhawani.

Ho Tribe Beliefs

• Worship of ancestral spirits and Marang Bonga, a supreme deity.
• Ading: The sacred part of the house where the clan’s spirits reside.
  • No food or traditional drink (Hadiya) can be consumed without offerings here.
  • Only members of the bride’s family and specific lineage (Killi) may enter.
• All physical ailments are attributed to witches, Bongas (spirits), or the dead.
  • Remedies include:
    • Killing a family member suspected of witchcraft
    • Sacrificing a chicken, goat, bull, or buffalo to appease Bongas
• Other deities include Gramsind, Baram, Vasuki, and Singbonga.
• Religious roles include astrologers, priests, Ojhas, and spirit healers.

Kharia Tribe Beliefs

• Possess multiple deities:
  • Pahadi Kharia: Led by Dihri
  • Dudh and Laki Kharia: Led by Pahan
• Worship the Sun as Thakur or Bela Bhagwan, with chicken sacrifice.
• Ancestors (Budha-Budhi) are worshipped in Shravan and Bhadrapad.
• Perform Adi Puja for good rains.
• Annual religious rituals:
  • Jyeshtha: Sun worship
  • Ashadh: Rain-related prayers
  • Shravan: Ancestor worship
  • Chaitra-Vaishakh: Hunting rituals

Farmer and Bhumij Tribes

• Worship ancestral and spirit beings.
• Strong belief in Sun God, to whom they offer white chicken sacrifices.

Cheros’ Religious Beliefs

• Sorcery and magical practices are integral.
• Main aim of religious practices: protection from angry spirits.
• Strong Hindu influence on their deities and rituals.
• Main sacred sites in villages:
  • Gaihal Sthan
  • Devi Sthan
  • Kula Devta Sthan
• Sacred trees serve as deity abodes, and stones represent gods.
• Village priest known as Baiga (hereditary role); in some villages, the Dihwar performs priestly duties.
• No idols or temples; symbolic worship is common.
• Death rituals resemble Hindu customs.
  • Belief: God provides Jeeu (soul) to the body for a fixed term, then reclaims it.

Sadan and Hindu Influence

• Worship of traditional Hindu gods and goddesses: Shiva, Parvati, Kali, Saraswati, Lakshmi, Durga, Hanuman, Vishnu.
• Saraswati Puja is celebrated during Vasant Panchami.
• Durga Puja is celebrated during Dussehra.
• Lakshmi Puja during Diwali and Kali Puja the day after.
• Workers in factories and technical fields worship Vishwakarma.
• Hanuman Jayanti is observed in Chaitra month.

Christianity in Jharkhand

• Active missionary work began around two centuries ago.
• First major conversion occurred on 6 June 1850 when four people embraced Christianity.
• Santhals were most affected—about 3% had converted by 1947.
• Italian and Anglican missions, like Church Mission Society, worked from 1862.
• By 1947:
  • Numerous churches, schools, and hostels were established.
  • Thousands of tribals had converted.
• Roman Catholic Mission began in 1869 and contributed significantly to:
  • Education
  • Health services
  • Infrastructure
• Present Christian population in Jharkhand: 9.41%.
• Major Christian regions: Ranchi, Gumla, Simdega, Singhbhum, Lohardaga, Santhal Pargana.
• Christian Student Organization formed in 1812 to promote education rights.
• Highest Christian population: Gumla; lowest: Deoghar.
• Literacy among Christians: 67.9%.
• Tribals in Christianity: Around 14.5% of the total tribal population.
• Major churches: St. Paul’s Church, GEL Church, and others.

Other Religious Communities

• Sikhism:
  • Present mainly in towns and cities.
  • Active in trade and administration.
  • High literacy: 87.8%.
• Jainism:
  • Ancient influence in Jharkhand, proven by archaeological remains.
  • Major role in promoting:
    • Animal shelters (Goshalas)
    • Rest houses (Dharamshalas)
    • Schools and hospitals
  • Primarily urban and business-oriented.
• Buddhism:
  • Very small population but maintains peaceful coexistence.

The Accidental Foundation of the Gossner Evangelical Lutheran Mission in Chotanagpur

• The Gossner Evangelical Lutheran Church (GELC) in Chotanagpur was not the result of a planned missionary activity, but rather a series of accidental events.
• The mission is named after Father Johannes Evangelista Gossner, a Roman Catholic priest born on 14 December 1773 in Bavaria, Southern Germany.
• At the age of 10, Gossner received his First Communion and Holy Sacrament, and completed his primary education in his hometown before moving to Augsburg.
• He passed his matriculation in 1792 and later studied theology at Dillingen Roman Catholic University, becoming a priest in 1796.
• He served as a priest in Norburg, Munich, Dusseldorf, and St. Petersburg, eventually reaching Berlin.
• Later, he moved to Leipzig and began publishing religious literature.
• Due to legal constraints, he was ordered to leave Leipzig within three days and eventually joined the Lutheran Church in Silesia.
• He was appointed as the priest of Behlm Church in Berlin, where in 1834, he began a monthly religious publication and appealed for missionaries to be sent to Australia, Africa, and Madagascar.

Sending of Missionaries

• In 1839, Gossner sent a Gäzetch missionary.
• In 1841, six priests were dispatched.
• In 1844, four missionaries were sent to Burma’s Karen tribe but never reached there.
• These four missionaries ended up in Chotanagpur, not due to any strategic plan but because of unexpected circumstances.

Change of Destination from Burma to Chotanagpur

• On 14 December 1844, the missionaries reached Calcutta, intending to go to Burma.
• There, they learned that American Baptist missionaries were already working among the Karen people.
• To avoid overlapping missions, they considered moving to Tibet and then to Shimla Hills, but the Anglo-Sikh war disrupted their plans.
• In Calcutta, they encountered some tribals from Chotanagpur working in poor conditions—repairing roads, digging canals, and cleaning drains.
• These tribals were described as poor, oppressed, and hard-working, living in extreme poverty and bondage, often exploited by their Hindu and Muslim landlords.
• The missionaries were drawn toward these tribals and began considering Chotanagpur as a new mission field.

Support from British Officials

• Two British officers, Colonel Ousley and Commissioner Hannington, who had a keen interest in missionary work, encouraged the missionaries to proceed to Chotanagpur.
• The missionaries accepted the suggestion and left Calcutta on 25 February 1845 with a young Indian assistant.
• They traveled partly by bullock cart and partly on foot, enduring many hardships, and reached Bankura.
• They stayed there for one year, learned Hindi, and began preaching among the locals.

Establishment in Ranchi

• On 15 October 1845, they left Bankura and arrived in Ranchi, camping for three days before settling.
• On 1 December 1845, they laid the foundation of their mission center between Ranchi and Doranda, naming it Bethesda (House of Purity).
• Thus, the first and most prominent church in Chotanagpur was established.

Role of Dr. Haeberlein

• Although Gossner played an inspirational role, he was not the actual founder of the Chotanagpur mission.
• The true credit goes to Dr. Haeberlein, who hosted the missionaries in Calcutta and discouraged them from going to Burma, Tibet, or Shimla.
• He maintained contacts with local British authorities, including Deputy Commissioner Hannington and Colonel Ousley of the Ramgarh Battalion.
• Dr. Haeberlein personally came to Ranchi to make initial arrangements for the missionaries’ stay and was assisted by his wife, who also motivated them.
• Therefore, Dr. and Mrs. Haeberlein are considered the true architects of the Chotanagpur Mission.

Early Challenges and Initiatives

• The terrain of Ranchi was barren and rocky, frequently struck by famines, leading to many orphaned children.
• British officials entrusted these orphans to the missionaries, who provided shelter, food, and education.
• These children were baptized in 1846 with names like Thomas, John, Prabhudayal, Masihdas, Matthew, and Mary, forming the first missionary school.
• Missionaries would pray, read the Bible, and travel by foot to surrounding villages where they were often referred to as the “white ghosts.”
• After returning, they worked in gardening, woodwork, and construction of churches and schools.

Expansion and Setbacks

• In 1846, more missionaries arrived from Berlin including Hermann, Anserga, and Neibuqualt.
• A new center was opened at Domba, around 60 km south of Ranchi, but Anserga’s work did not succeed there.
• In 1847, more missionaries arrived and engaged in agricultural and manual labor.
• In 1848, Dr. Konrad joined the mission, but the climate of Domba was unsuitable, prompting a shift to Govindpur in 1850.
• Local elites, including Lal Thakurs and royal family members, visited missionaries out of curiosity but had no intention of converting.
• In 1849, missionaries Gerard and Henry Batz met the king of Palcoot and gave him religious texts, hoping he would convert, which would aid their cause.

Major Turning Point – First Baptism

• Despite years of tireless work in Ranchi, Domba, Govindpur, and Lohardaga, no major conversions took place in the initial five years.
• Frustrated, the missionaries wrote to Gossner saying:
  “We’ve plowed and sown the seeds, but there is no fruit. The Kols are not converting. Our efforts are in vain.”
• Gossner replied firmly:
  “It doesn’t matter whether they convert or not. Your duty is to preach and pray. Leave the rest to God.”
• This unwavering faith was eventually rewarded.

First Christian Converts in Chotanagpur

• In March 1850, four Kabirpanthi Oraon farmers, oppressed by zamindars, came to Ranchi for a land dispute hearing.
• They stayed at the mission and began attending services. Curious about Jesus, they were patiently taught about faith and baptism.
• On 9 June 1850, they became the first converts, marking a historic moment in the Christian history of Chotanagpur.
• The next baptized convert, Nirdosh, was initiated on 17 October 1850.
• In October 1851, Sadhu Munda of Bandaya and Mangla Munda of Walongong were also baptized by Rev. Shatz.

The Rise of Christianity in Chotanagpur: Missionary Activities and Tribal Conversion

The religious landscape of Chotanagpur underwent significant transformation during the 19th century due to active Christian missionary efforts. Below is a detailed account of their operations, challenges, and milestones:

Early Missionary Efforts and Strategies

• On 20 August 1854, a tribal man named Luther Singh was baptized.
• In the first decade, only 10 Munda and Oraon tribals were converted despite extensive efforts by missionaries.
• Missionaries spread Christian teachings in villages, markets, roadsides, and homes.
• They distributed free medicines and began preaching wherever crowds gathered.
• In Ranchi, missionary Loi, and in Lohardaga, missionary Conrad, treated around 70 patients daily.
  • Conrad’s Lohardaga center eventually became a mission hospital, serving both medical and evangelical purposes.
• Schools were opened where children studied during the day, and adults learned basic literacy at night.
• This ensured continuous preaching and religious instruction.

Missionary Expansion and Local Involvement

• The news of conversions greatly pleased Gossner, the founder of the mission.
• By 1851, he had sent 19 missionaries to Ranchi.
• By 1855, seven pastoral provinces (पादरी-प्रदेश) were established, each under a supervisor.
• In 1856, their numbers doubled, necessitating local tribal involvement.
• A tribal worker named Noman of Hithokart emerged as a dedicated and active missionary.
• In the same year, Prabhudayal, a catechist, was employed at a salary of ₹4.50/month (approx. ₹450 today).
  • His job: to pray, read the Bible, and spread Christianity among non-Christians.
• Another local, Kristopal, was appointed a preacher with an annual salary of ₹54.
• By 1857, about 420 tribals were converted.
  • Total Christian population in Chotanagpur reached nearly 800, spread across 60+ villages.
  • Some sources suggest 700 converts before the 1857 Rebellion.
• Notrott claimed that by November 1856, the number would soon reach 2,000.
• Holston (1896) gives vague figures, while Shering’s figure of 100,000 is clearly incorrect.
• Reliable estimates by Alexander Uff and Dalton confirm the count around 700–800.

New Centers and Tribal Resistance

• Besides Ranchi, new centers were opened in:
  • Govindpur (1850)
  • Chaibasa (1851)
  • Hazaribagh (1854)
  • Pithoria (1855)
• Students were given 1 anna/week as incentives, yet attendance remained low due to domestic responsibilities.
• Parents feared their children would be converted and often:
  • Punished children, and
  • Harassed missionaries.
• Missionaries initiated new festivals like the Thanksgiving Festival, where children and parents offered a portion of their harvest to Jesus.
• Parents attempted to forbid participation and even thought of imposing religious sanctions.

Language and Literacy Efforts

• Tribals lacked a written language.
• Missionaries made efforts to learn and teach Munda, Kurukh (Oraon), and Santhali languages.
• They also learned Hindi and Bengali.
• Henry Batz often communicated in the Oraon language.
• By 1850, religious literature was printed in the Oraon language.

Conflict and Persecution

• Except for Shering, no sources suggest that Hindus or Muslims obstructed missionary work.
• Shering claimed Zamindars persecuted Christian converts:
  • Looted goods and cattle
  • Burned homes and stripped people
  • Destroyed crops
  • Assaulted and evicted families
  • Molested women and endangered men
• Though Shering’s account seems exaggerated, the 1857 rebellion certainly harmed both missionaries and converts:
  • “All fled to save their lives,” Shering wrote.
  • Missionaries hid in deserts, swamps, and waters, eventually reaching Calcutta.
  • Local Christians hid in caves and forests, but none renounced their faith.
• Scholar Saryu Mahato found Shering’s version exaggerated.
• No solid evidence exists of regular persecution before 1857; oppression occurred mainly during the rebellion.
• Hindu-Muslim resentment towards Christians was driven by economic rather than religious reasons.
• Some Zamindars accused missionaries of inciting tenants.
• British officers in Ranchi sided with Christian tribals, strengthening missionary presence.
• This led a Zamindar to attack 30 villages aligned with the missionaries.

Post-Rebellion Revival and Leadership

• Gossner died on 30 March 1858.
• After peace was restored, missionaries returned.
• On 20 August 1858, Pastor Emil Schatz baptized Maninath Singh, a Bundelkhandi Rajput.
  • Maninath, renamed Wilhelm Luther Daud Singh, became a key figure in the mission.
• By 1864, missionaries had set up 11 schools and several centers in Chotanagpur.
• That year, A. Anso was sent to resolve internal missionary disputes.
• Old missionaries like Batz, Watsch, Bahan, Herzog, Kruger, and Pohllanz had 7000 local Christian followers.
• Due to mismanagement, they suspended operations.
• Attempts by Ranchi and Calcutta Committees to reconcile failed.

The SPG Mission and Church Reorganization

• Colonel Dalton and senior missionaries requested Bishop Milman to integrate the ousted missionaries into the Church of England.
• Milman reached out to:
  • Church Missionary Society (CMS), Calcutta – no positive response.
  • Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (SPG), London – began correspondence.
• Many converts also requested inclusion in the Anglican Church.
• After consulting:
  • Bengal’s Lieutenant Governor
  • Calcutta Auxiliary Committee
  • German members Scudder and Pillirath
• On 17 April 1869, 624 representatives of 7,000 Christians ceremoniously joined the English Church.
• The Lutheran Church severely criticized Bishop Milman.
• The issue received wide coverage in Indian and German press.
• Holston wrote that the dispute escalated into an international issue, even involving Prussian church officials and Bismarck.
• Despite opposition, the split remained.

Expansion of Missions Post-Division

• The division ultimately benefitted both missions.
• Protestants, who had been active since 1845, continued to grow.
• Notrott restructured the mission and gave it a new vision.
• By 1890, GEL Mission had 35,000 followers.
• New centers opened even in Jesuit- and SPG-dominated regions like:
  • Katras
  • Govindpur
  • Lohardaga
• In 1884, with support from Hagenberg Mission, A. Hain opened a leprosy center in Lohardaga.
• Other centers:
  • Takarma (1873)
  • Chainpur (1892)
  • Hazaribagh: opened in 1853, closed during the rebellion, restarted in 1861, and finally sold to Dublin University Mission in 1893.

SPG Mission Organization and Tribal Leadership

• After 1869, the original Gossner Mission was renamed and worked under SPG supervision.
• Rev. J.C. Heatly was appointed the chief administrator.
• The mission had active centers in Ranchi, Hazaribagh, and Chaibasa.
• Heatly’s primary tasks were:
  • Reorganize and strengthen the church
  • Protect converts from non-Christian encroachment
• The church district was divided into 25 sections, each with 10–15 villages under the charge of a teacher or deacon.
• In 1873, five tribal Christians were ordained deacons and posted in:
  • Itki
  • Marang Garha
  • Murha Taparka
  • Ramtoliya
• The mission was reorganized into 48 church districts under seven pastors.
• By 1882, the number of pastors increased to 14, led by Father Bunch.
• The rising number of tribal pastors ensured continued growth of the Chotanagpur mission.
• By 1890, the mission received the status of a bishopric.

G.E.L. Mission and Anglican Influence

• On 23 March 1890, Heatley was appointed the first bishop of the G.E.L. Mission.
• By that year, the number of followers had risen to 12,519.
• Colonel Dalton and other British officials extended considerable support to the mission.
• From the beginning, the British administration provided an annual grant of £120 to the mission.

Impact of World War I

• At the onset of World War I, German missionaries were interned and later deported to Germany.
• The Anglican Bishop Westcott was appointed to oversee the G.E.L. properties, schools, and hospitals.
• Westcott was also tasked with supporting and advising the Indian pastors of the G.E.L. Mission.

Transition in Church Leadership

• Although the G.E.L. mission came under Anglican supervision, Westcott did not attempt to merge the Lutheran clergy into the SPG (Society for the Propagation of the Gospel).
• South Indian and American Lutheran friends continued to assist the Lutheran mission in Chotanagpur.
• Over time, the distrust between Anglicans and Lutherans decreased, and Anglican supervision ultimately benefited the Lutheran mission.
• Local pastors began leading the church, replacing European missionaries.

Emergence of Indigenous Church Leadership

• In March 1916, the Lutheran Synod chose Rev. H.D. Lakra as a local pastor.
• A central committee was formed to assist with daily operations.
• In 1917, the SPG proposed a merger with the Gossner Mission, suggesting that:
  • Existing pastors should remain.
  • Anglican and Lutheran festivals be celebrated jointly.

Rejection of Merger and Growth of Independence

• The central committee of the G.E.L. Mission rejected the merger proposal.
• The British government also decided that Gossner properties should not be handed over to others.
• Opposition from American and South Indian Lutherans prevented any consolidation.
• Consequently, both the G.E.L. and SPG missions continued separately in Chotanagpur.
• In July 1919, the Gossner Mission transformed into a self-governing and self-supporting church.

Roman Catholic Mission in Chotanagpur

Early Beginnings and Leadership

• The Roman Catholic mission began in 1869 with Father Stock arriving in Chaibasa.
• In 1880, Father Spart reached Doranda, but real momentum came with Father Constant Lievens in 1885.
• Father Lievens soon became the pivotal figure in the mission’s growth, with strong support from:
  • Father Van Severin
  • Father Gordon
  • Father Dehon

Mission Structure and Expansion

• The region was divided into five mission zones: Torpa, Dorma, Dichia, Karra, and Upkara, with Chaibasa and Hazaribagh as external centers.
• The Archbishop Goethals appointed Father Lievens as the Director of the Chotanagpur Mission.
• A plantation near Purulia Road was bought for Rs. 8,000, establishing the mission headquarters in 1886.
• In Chaibasa, Father Stockman converted several Munda families, establishing churches and schools.

First Catholic Villages

• Burudih near Bangawan became the first Catholic village, followed by Burma.
• On 13 February 1881, Archbishop Goethals visited and blessed 41 Christians.
• By 23 July 1885, the number of converts rose to 557, and by the end of the year, 1,837 Catholics lived in Chotanagpur.

Father Lievens’ Evangelism

• Known as “Libin Saheb,” Lievens settled in Torpa in November 1885 and converted people from 60 villages.
• After a mysterious fire, he moved to Karra, where several villages embraced Christianity.
• Later, in Panari and Nawagarh, 2,888 baptisms took place (mostly children) with the help of Father Hagenbeck.
• His efforts reached Biru-Barwa, inhabited by 3,500 Oraons.
• The Beru villagers, after winning a court case with his help, became devoted converts, triggering a wave of mass conversions.

Mass Baptisms and Legal Entanglements

• Within three weeks, 1,300 people were baptized in Ranchi.
• People from Palamu, Kanser (2,603), Barwe (24,301), and Chechari (18,885) lined up for baptism.
• Ultimately, 23,000 people were baptized under Lievens’ leadership.
• His health deteriorated, leading to his departure to Darjeeling, then Belgium, where he died on 7 November 1893.

Legacy and Legal Activism

• Lievens’ legacy in Chotanagpur is comparable to:
  • Father de Nobili in Madurai
  • Father Ricci in China
• He studied land laws and rights, helping tribal people win cases.
• By working with lawyers and magistrates, he gained the trust of tribals, drawing them to Christianity.
• His popularity led to accusations from British officials, including:
  • Encouraging tenants to resist landlords
  • Interfering in land disputes

Colonial Reaction and Conflicts

• On 26 April 1888, Deputy Commissioner Lillingston warned that Lievens’ actions were disturbing peace.
• In subsequent months, tensions between landlords and Christian tenants rose.
• Some Christian converts began refusing rent and asserting local authority.
• Reports indicated that even minor signs like cutting of the top-knot (shikha) were accepted as proof of conversion.
• Converted tenants sometimes resorted to coercion, theft of crops, and violence.
• Several such offenders were imprisoned.
• A major incident occurred when 2,500 Christians rescued four arrested men from police custody, claiming:
  • “Now the rule is ours, and our court is not in Ranchi but in Tetara where Lievens lives.”

Increased Violence and Government Concern

• Attacks on missionaries increased:
  • Jesuit Hutch had to leave Dorma for Khunti.
  • Father Dehon was surrounded by 50 men in Gumla and had to flee.
• Missionaries faced constant threats in Biru, Barwa, and other regions.
• To support the shaken community, Archbishop Goethals toured troubled areas in January-February 1890.
• His visit, and that of Lieutenant Governor Sir Stuart Bailey, who appreciated missionary work, boosted morale.

Father J.B. Hoffmann and Later Developments

• In 1893, another towering figure, Father John Baptist Hoffmann, joined the Catholic mission.
• He served in Sarwada from 1895 to 1907.
• The Roman Catholic Cathedral in Ranchi was completed in 1909.
• Being German, Hoffmann was deported in 1915, but not before completing his monumental work, the “Encyclopaedia Mundarica”.

Roman Catholic Mission

• A cooperative bank was established specifically for Christian followers, which received legal recognition from the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal.
• Hallet and Macpherson described this mission as “India’s largest of its kind”.
• Missionary Hoffmann took a deep interest in administrative reforms, especially land revenue systems.
• His efforts influenced the 1902 Land Survey and the Chotanagpur Tenancy Act of 1908.
• Notable contributors included Father Pathen Linden, who arrived in Khunti in 1895, and Father Bretadieux, who came to Mahuadand in 1890 before moving to Soso.
• By 1896, there were at least 11 significant Roman Catholic priests, and their number grew to 50.
• Ursuline and Loreto nuns also arrived to support the mission.
• In 1914, six Belgian nuns arrived, and by then, the mission had 18 central residences, each with its own church and prayer hall.
• The outbreak of World War I led to a halt in new missionary arrivals and created financial difficulties for the mission.
• Many early missionaries, such as Father Coremans, Father Desvoy, and Father Dehn Van Royas, died of various illnesses.
• However, they had already established churches in Ranchi, Khunti, Mahuadand, Daltonganj, Rengari, and Mandar.
• Centers in Chaibasa, Chakradharpur, and Hazaribagh were also operational at that time.
• Different church districts included Ranchi-Mandar, Khunti, Barwa, and Biru.
• During the famines of 1898 and 1908, the mission actively conducted relief operations in places like Khatkati, Mahuadand, Chechari, and Karra.
• By 1920, the number of Catholic Christians in Chotanagpur had reached 1 lakh (100,000).
• By 1939, this number had doubled to 2 lakhs, and by 1947, it had reached 5 lakhs.

The United Free Church of Scotland

• This mission began in Pachamba in 1871 by medical missionaries.
• Rev. Archibald Templeton arrived on 15 December 1871.
• Later joined by Dr. Andrew Campbell, along with other doctors like Dr. J.A. Dyer and Dr. J.M. Healty.
• Miss Mary Gilchrist arrived in 1872 to work among women and to run a girls’ school.
• In 1874, five individuals were baptized in Pachamba, including Joseph Sido.
• In 1881, the village head of Savalapur converted to Christianity.
• A new center was opened at Palgunj in 1882, and a Christian village was established in Baritand in 1885, where the Manjhi (tribal head) became the pastor.
• Dr. Campbell worked in Pokharia and Govindpur in Manbhum, and to counter Yogi Baba’s influence, opened the Jamdiha Center.
• Kolhar Center was opened due to the influence of a Christian orphan girl named Parbatiya, who had earlier wandered as “Kali Mai”.
• During a drought, Dr. Campbell prayed for rain, and it reportedly rained soon after, leading to the conversion of 97 people in one day.
• In honor of Dr. Campbell, Dr. Wilson built a beautiful church in Pokharia.
• Two more churches were built in 1889 at Giridih and Pachamba. The Pachamba church became known as “The Stephenson Memorial Church”.
• Dr. Campbell, known as the “Apostle of the Santhals”, was awarded the Kaiser-i-Hind title and made a First-Class Magistrate.
• In 1912, with the creation of Bihar province, he became a member of the Legislative Council and also served on the Senate of Patna University.
• He compiled a Santali-English Dictionary.
• His court was known for fairness, where people could speak without needing lawyers.
• After 47 years of service, Dr. J.M. McPhail passed away on 8 July 1919, and Dr. J.M. McPhail died on 15 June 1929 in Bamda.
• Main centers of this mission included Pachamba, Bamda, Pokharia, and Tisri.
• Other stations included Jhalakdiha, Giridih, Baritand, Kolhar, Jamdiha, Bungi, Harodih, Wadhwadiha, Basaha Pokharia, and Bartoli.
• In 1929, on its 23rd anniversary, the mission’s name was changed to Santhal Mission of the Church of Scotland.

Dublin University Mission

• Began in 1890 when Ship Heatley called upon young graduates to serve anywhere in the world.
• A group of unmarried Dublin University graduates arrived on 10 November 1891 and stayed in an old military barrack in Hazaribagh after getting government approval.
• They worked under the SPG (Society for the Propagation of the Gospel).
• The Hazaribagh cantonment had existed since 1780, and a church for Christian soldiers had been there since 1842.
• Real missionary activity began with the Dublin Mission Brothers.
• They preached in fairs and markets and organized literary meetings.
• The first baptized convert was Ganpat, later renamed Gabriel.
• A Brahmin from Trinidad, Ram Prasad Dubey, converted and became an active missionary under the name Edward.
• In July 1899, the St. Columba’s College was established with 13 students and J.H. Moren as its first principal.
• The Raja of Ramgarh donated ₹3,000.
• In 1904, the college gained B.A. recognition from Calcutta University.
• It remained the only affiliated college in Chotanagpur for a time.
• In 1912, a new government grant of ₹30,000 helped build the King Emperor Blocks.
• In 1917, government aid of ₹50,000 established science laboratories.
• Sir Edward Gait, Lieutenant Governor of Bengal, inaugurated them.
• After 1920, a team of 6 male and 10 female missionaries arrived.
• Notably, Miss Mabel Graham and A.F. Markham made significant contributions.
• They worked in Giridih, Chhatarpur, Bermo, and Ramgarh.
• Several clinics and care homes were set up, including the St. Columba’s Hospital, which expanded with a TB ward in 1938.
• By 1947, the hospital had 98 beds and a training program for 26 B-category nurses.
• Educational activities were modest; St. Kiran Girls’ School was founded in 1920, becoming a higher secondary school by 1947.
• By 1924, the mission had opened 19 boys’ schools and 4 night schools in rural Hazaribagh.
• Some schools later closed, but St. Columba’s High School emerged as a premier institution.
• In 1925, Debi Das Chatterjee of this school topped the Patna University matriculation exam.
• The college remained the mission’s academic cornerstone.
• Rev. A.O. Hordo was principal in 1921, and F. Markham took over in 1928, leading up to Indian independence.
• Mission progress notably began with Rev. H.D.S. Kennedy, who led until 1926.
• A.A.O. Hardy served from 1927 to 1935, followed by G.L.P. Stephenson until 1946.
• In 1946, Rev. F.R. Willis became the head and served for many years.
• These leaders were foundational to the mission’s long-term impact.

The Seventh Day Adventist Church

• This mission started work in Morabadi, Ranchi, by renting a house that was later donated to the church.
• In 1923, Pastor Burgees purchased 23 acres in Bargai and built a school.
• Pastor J.E. Sandra became the school’s principal.
• In 1928, a prayer hall was built in Kargi, near Itki, and another branch was opened in Senti.
• Pastor W.B. Bote established a school with a hostel by 1944.
• The church strictly followed dietary laws, including abstinence from meat and tobacco.

Religious Life and Missionary Influence in Jharkhand

Jharkhand, a land of rich tribal heritage and spiritual traditions, has seen the evolution and integration of multiple faiths, missionary activities, and religious reforms. Here’s a comprehensive look into its religious dynamics:

Christian Missionary Activity in Chotanagpur

• The Adventist Church in Chotanagpur had a minimal following due to various limitations.
• Three major Christian missions dominated Chotanagpur:
  • Anglican Mission, later known as the Church of North India (CNI).
  • Lutheran Mission, generally referred to as G.E.L. Church.
  • Roman Catholic Church.
• By 1947, the total number of Christian converts in the region reached approximately 400,000.
• All three missions faced not only external opposition but also internal conflicts, with the G.E.L. Church being most affected.
• Cultural identity often sparked tensions among Munda Christians across these missions.
• Both G.E.L. and SPG Churches witnessed a significant dominance of Munda tribe in terms of numbers and influence.
• Festivals like Easter and Good Friday sometimes became points of contention between Lutheran and other Christian denominations.
• The Roman Catholic Church allowed considerable freedom to its followers.
• The C.M.S. Santal Mission began operations in 1860 at Hiranpur in Pakur, Santhal Pargana.
• E.L. Paxley started the mission work on the advice of George Yule, Commissioner of Santhal Pargana, by establishing a residential school at Hiranpur.

Missionary Contribution to Education and Literature

• Chotanagpur Plateau remained an area of ignorance and illiteracy for centuries.
• Apart from medieval archaeological evidence, there is no clear sign of literacy in ancient times.
• Even after British entry, there was no structured education system for a long time.
• Despite bordering South Bihar, Bengal, and Uttar Pradesh, Chotanagpur derived minimal educational benefits.
• Some schools and madrasas existed in regions like Manbhum, Hazaribagh, and Palamu before British arrival, but their number was limited.
• In the first 50 years of East India Company rule, public education was not a governmental responsibility.
• No specific tax was levied for education; teachers (pandits) and maulvis relied on voluntary donations.
• Primary education was delivered in Sanskrit and Persian through tols, madrasas, maktabs, and pathshalas.
• The colonial government later realized the need to educate locals to align them with the new administration.

Santhal Religion and Beliefs

• The Santhal tribe primarily practiced nature worship.
• Their principal deities include Thakur Jiu and Marang Guru.
• They believed the well-being of individuals, families, or villages depended on the blessings of Bongaguru and Hapramakko.
• Other Santhal deities included: Gosai Era, Modeko, Tuiko, Johar, Esh, Odak Bouga, etc.
• Like other Chotanagpur tribes, Christianity entered Santhal society in the 19th century.
• By the time of India’s independence, around 3% of Santhals had converted to Christianity and were called “Umehad”.
• A few Santhals also embraced Islam, Sikhism, and Jainism, but in negligible numbers.
• Santhals celebrate festivals such as Sohrai, Sarhul, Karam, Janthar, Erok Sim, Baha, Sakrat, among others.
• Major Santhal gods: Marang Buru, Sing Bonga, Gosai Era, etc.

Religious Beliefs of Other Tribes

• Asurs: Worshipped the Sun god (Singbonga), similar to Mundas; believed in witches, shamans, and divine spirits; their priest was called Yoga.
• Birhors: Worshipped cow, Singbonga, Gurubonga, Waghvir, Languburu, Hanumanvir, and Hudarvir.
  • They performed rituals before hunting, before drinking water from a new well, and after death.
• Korwas: Influenced by Hinduism; worshipped Sun, Moon, Earth, and primarily Singbonga.
  • Believed Sun to be benevolent, Indra to bring rain, and Earth as the granter of food.
  • Religious duties were performed by their Baiga (priest).
• Ho tribe: Worshipped Marangbonga and other deities such as Gramsind, Baram, Vasuki, Singyoga, etc.
  • Important roles in religious life: astrologers, priests, shamans, and healers.
• Kharia: Worshipped various deities.
  • Prayed to the Sun in Jyeshtha (May-June), for rain in Ashadha, for ancestors in Shravan, and for hunting success in Chaitra-Vaishakh.
• Kisan and Bhumij: Worshipped spirits and ancestral souls.
  • Practiced Sun worship with sacrifice of white rooster.

Hinduism in Jharkhand

• Hinduism is the dominant religion in Jharkhand with 68.6% of the population.
• Overall literacy among Hindus stands at 54.6%, reflecting long-standing influence of Sanatan Dharma.
• Tribes were first influenced by Hindus upon contact, leading many to adopt the religion.
• Tribes like Chero, Kharwar, Rajabar, Virajia, and Parhiya considered themselves Hindus from the beginning.
• Worship of Shiva, Vishnu, Krishna, Hanuman, Kali is prevalent.
• Like mainstream Hindu practices, religious ceremonies among them are conducted by priests.
• Sun worship gained prominence among tribes under Hindu influence.
• The rise of Danha Bhagat, Birsa Bhagat, and Tana Bhagat movements also shows Hinduism’s impact.

Hindu Reform Movements

• Several reformist movements influenced Jharkhand:
  • Brahmo Samaj:
    • Opened schools for tribal education.
    • Set up free homeopathic dispensaries considering tribal health needs.
    • Launched multiple welfare programs.
  • Ramakrishna Mission:
    • Sparked a Hindu religious awakening in Jharkhand.
    • Established many schools and hospitals.
    • In Ranchi, opened the Divyayan training center at the foot of Tagore Hill in 1969 to promote rural employment.
    • Set up Arogya Dham near Ranchi for continuous healthcare.
    • Took a leading role in famine relief during droughts and natural calamities.
  • Arya Samaj: Also made notable efforts in social reforms.

Islam in Jharkhand

• 16.8% of Jharkhand’s population follows Islam.
• Islam arrived in late 15th century with the Mughal influence in Chotanagpur.
• Muslims are categorized into:
  • Ashraf: Sayyids, Mughals, Iranians, and Afghans.
  • Ajlaf: Momin, Lalnegi, Julaha, etc.
• Centuries of coexistence with Hindus have led to interfaith cultural exchanges.
• Participating in each other’s festivals is a common and accepted practice.
• Numerous mosques and dargahs are found throughout the state.
• Madrasas have been established to promote Islamic education.
• The local dialect includes words from Urdu, Persian, Arabic, and Hindi.
• Jumu’ah (Friday prayers) are observed communally.
• Major festivals: Eid, Bakrid (Eid-ul-Zuha), Shab-e-Barat, Muharram, celebrated with joy.

Important Dates and Institutions

• Ramakrishna Mission Ranchi was founded in 1927.
• Divyayan Training Center was established in 1969 for rural youth skill development.