Tribal Beliefs and Religious Practices

• Sakarat Bonga is a key religious ritual among the Santals, performed with offerings and sacrifices made only by men.
• The ritual often involves singing, and occasionally, the deity is believed to possess a devotee.
• The possessed individual is dressed and worshipped as the deity they embody.
• Each deity has a unique worship method and corresponding sacrificial animal:
  • Marang Buru – Red rooster
  • Jaher Aayo (Mother Goddess) – White rooster
  • Panchgan/Modeko or Heda – Spotted rooster
• Ancestors are offered handia (fermented rice beer) as a form of respect.
• Every village has a central ground (Akhra) where community festivals like Karma are celebrated, often without sacrifices.
• These rituals reflect deep ecological awareness and are rooted in seasonal cycles and social unity.

Tribal Funeral Rites

• Mundas typically bury the deceased and complete associated rituals within a week, abstaining from meat, dance, and greetings.
• Important rites:
  • Ambal Ader – Within one year of death
  • Biddiri – Memorial stone placed
  • Then Diri – Commemorative plaques installed
• Oraons follow similar customs and practice both cremation and burial. They also perform Hadbora, a bone-burial ceremony.
• The Shashandiri is a sacred place for keeping ancestors’ bones.
• Santals use both cremation and burial; items like bows, sticks, clothes, and musical instruments are buried with the body for the afterlife.
• The body is placed north–south during cremation, and the eldest male gives the fire (mukhagni).
• Asurs originally practiced only burial but later adopted cremation; clothes are burned along with the body.
• Burial sites are marked with a Nishan (symbol), and rituals usually last ten days.

Hindu Society in Chotanagpur

• Though invaded by Aryans, tribal populations remained insulated for a long time in the rugged terrain of Chotanagpur.
• Tribals called Hindus Sudh (pure/outsider), while Hindus referred to tribals as Kol (impure), Chuar (robber), or Dikku (oppressor).
• Hindu society was divided into four varnas:
  1. Brahmins
  2. Kshatriyas
  3. Vaishyas
  4. Shudras

Brahmins

• Most Brahmins were farmers, not priests, and often viewed as arrogant despite limited knowledge.
• Invited initially by Chotanagpur rulers and zamindars, especially Maharashtrian Brahmins.
• Sub-castes included:
  • Kanaujia
  • Sarwar
  • Shakadwipi
  • Mahabrahmin
• Kanaujias accepted food from Sarwars and Shakadwipis but avoided eating cooked rice from them.
• Sarwars did not perform priestly duties but were successful farmers.
• Mahabrahmins performed death rituals; Shakadwipis handled spiritual and teaching roles.

Kshatriyas

• Subgroups: Nagvanshi, Shikhar, Khasel — considered elite Rajputs.
• Many tribal rulers became Kshatriyas over time through wealth and intermarriage with Rajput families.
• If originally high-born, some Kshatriyas lost status due to misbehavior and lower marriages.
• Despite this, they remained wealthy, powerful landlords and skilled warriors.
• Elite Rajputs were distinguished by appearance, dress, and pride; poor Rajputs were visibly modest.

Vaishyas

• Business communities included:
  • Agrawal
  • Jaiswal
  • Maheshwari
  • Purwar
  • Barnwal
• Many migrated and settled in Chotanagpur in large numbers.
• Lower-tier trading castes: Sahu, Modi, Baniya

Other Castes and Professions

• Skilled artisan castes: Jalwai, Mali, Bari, Dhanuk, Kandu
• Agricultural groups: Koeri, Kumi
• Working-class occupations:
  • Kahar (palanquin bearers)
  • Gwala (herdsmen)
  • Kumhar (potters)
  • Lohar (blacksmiths)
  • Barhai (carpenters)
  • Hajam (barbers)
  • Mallah (boatmen)
• Lowest-ranked castes: Dhobi, Dusadh, Manar, Home
• Bengali-speaking Kayasthas lived near urban and border areas — mostly in jobs, some took up farming.
• Other professions: Teli (oil pressers), Tamoli (betel sellers), Tathera (utensil makers), Kasera, Sunar (goldsmiths)

Tribal-Hindu Cultural Interactions

• Bhuiyan tribes were of Dravidian origin but categorized variably as Scheduled Castes or Tribals.
• Bhokta and Bhumij were tribal groups influenced by Hinduism; mainly farmers, some were wealthy landlords.
• Their consumption of beef, pork, and alcohol often placed them lower in the social hierarchy.
• Tribes like Mahli, Turi, and some Odia groups were originally tribal but absorbed into Hindu castes.
• Interactions with Hindus led many tribes to adopt:
  • Sacred thread (Yajnopavita) ceremonies
  • Worship of Shiva, Kali, Hanuman, and local deities
  • Rituals performed by Brahmin priests
• Major tribes like Munda and Oraon were also influenced, especially in Hindu-dominated villages.

Tribal Reform Movements

• Growing Hindu influence led to the rise of socio-religious reform movements within tribal societies, including:
  • Shivling Dharma
  • Birsa Dharma
  • Danha Bhagat
  • Vishnu Bhagat
  • Tana Bhagat
• Some tribes, like Chero, Kharwar, Pahariya, Kisan, Birjia, Dhanuk, Marh, Raitia, Jhora, Ranjbar, Bijhiya, and Rawar, no longer identify as tribals.
• They fully embraced Hindu customs and earned higher status in the Hindu caste structure.

Socio-Cultural Landscape of Chotanagpur

Communities and Caste Composition

Agrarian and Artisan Castes

• Landowners and wealthy individuals existed among various castes.
• Artisan castes included:
  • Halwai (confectioners)
  • Mali (gardeners)
  • Bari (leaf-plate makers)
  • Dhanuk (archers/farmers)
  • Kandu (confectioners)
• Agricultural castes included:
  • Koeri
  • Kurmi
• Other occupational castes:
  • Kumhar (potters)
  • Lohar (blacksmiths)
  • Barhai (carpenters)
  • Gwala (herdsmen)
  • Hajjam (barbers)
  • Mallah (boatmen)

Lower Castes (As Per Social Stratification)

• Considered socially lowest:
  • Dhobi (washermen)
  • Dusadh
  • Chamar (leather workers)
  • Dom (scavengers)

Settlement Patterns

• Multiple castes lived together in mixed villages.
• Even tribal-dominated villages had significant caste diversity.

Other Prominent Groups

• Presence of Kayasthas and Bengali-speaking people, especially in urban areas and regions bordering Bengal.
• Other professional castes included:
  • Teli (oil pressers)
  • Tamoli (betel sellers)
  • Thathera (brass utensil makers)
  • Kansara (metal workers)
  • Sonar (goldsmiths)

Tribal Communities and Hindu Influence

Cultural Assimilation and Transformation

• Tribes such as Bhokta and Bhumij were influenced by Hinduism.
• Some originally tribal communities like Mahli, Turi, and Odia adopted Hindu caste identities.

Hindu Influence on Tribes

• Tribes like Chero, Kharwar, Parahiya, Kisan, Birjia, Dhanuk, Rajbar, Bijhiya, and Rawar no longer saw themselves as purely tribal.
• Adopted Hindu customs and rituals, including worship of deities like Hanuman and Kali.
• Began engaging priests (purohits) for religious ceremonies.

Tribal Socio-Religious Movements

• Influence of Hinduism led to spiritual awakenings and reforms:
  • Shilpi Dharma
  • Danha Bhagat
  • Vishnu Bhagat
  • Tana Bhagat
  • Birsa Bhagat

The Muslim Community in Chotanagpur

Historical Origins and Migration

• Historical records about the Muslim community’s origin in Chotanagpur are limited.
• S.C. Roy noted that lower castes like Julaha (weavers) arrived with 16th-century Muslim invaders.
• Most early Muslims were Hindu converts.
• Some were descendants of 19th-century Muslim traders, while others came as early as the 14th century during Firoz Tughlaq’s campaign in Odisha.
• Invasions by Sher Shah to Alivardi Khan brought more Muslims.
• During British rule, Muslims arrived as:
  • Traders
  • Officials
  • Contractors
  • Landlords
• By 1947, Muslims numbered nearly 500,000.

Religious Sects and Social Stratification

• Divided into Shia and Sunni, with Sunnis being the majority.
• Prominent Muslim social groups:
  • Arki
  • Kalal
  • Momin (mainly weavers)
  • Kasab
  • Ghuniya
  • Chudihar
  • Kunjra
• Momin (Julahas) were the most numerous.
• Sayyids were called Mir, Pathans called Khan, and Mughals known as Mirza.
• Muslims of Arab, Iranian, Afghan, and Mughal ancestry were considered elite.

Gender Norms and Family Life

Marriage Customs and Female Roles

• Girls were married off at puberty.
• High-status Muslim families never left daughters alone with unknown men.
• Polygamy was permitted: Muslim men could marry up to three wives.
• Hindu men typically married one or two but could have mistresses if wealthy.

Lifestyle of Elite Women

• Zamindar and nawab women wore luxurious saris and heavy jewelry adorning nearly every body part.
• Upper-class Muslim women lived in seclusion (purdah) and had limited mobility.
• Poor Muslim women were more independent, while upper-class women faced mental stress due to restrictions.

Public Participation and Restrictions

• Aristocratic women could only watch festivals behind purdah.
• Women from lower-status groups like Julaha moved freely in public.
• Julahas, once Hindu, converted to Islam due to social prejudice toward their profession.

Social Mobility and Cultural Shifts

Sanskritization and Identity Shifts

• Lower Hindu castes adopted Islam for upward mobility.
• Chero and Kharwar began claiming Rajput status.
• Some elite Muslims refused to eat food from lower-status Muslims to preserve social hierarchy.
• Violations of this rule could lead to social punishment, though minor infractions were often overlooked.
• Being caught was considered a major offense.

Muslim Festivals and Celebrations

Major Religious Events

• Celebrated festivals included:
  • Muharram – mourning and processions
  • Ramzan (Ramadan) – fasting
  • Eid – celebration and joy
  • Bakrid – feast and sacrifice
• Muharram and Ramzan were marked by solemnity and rituals.
• Eid was the most joyful and communal festival.

Tribal Marriage Systems, Festivals, and Languages of Jharkhand

1. Types of Tribal Marriages in Jharkhand

Jharkhand’s tribal communities follow diverse and culturally rich marriage customs. These systems emphasize social harmony, practicality, and community values.

a. Service Marriage (सेवा विवाह / Bapla)

• The groom lives and works at his in-laws’ house for a fixed time.
• Offered in lieu of bride price.

b. Exchange Marriage (विनिमय विवाह / Golat Bapla)

• Two families exchange brides.
• Reduces economic burden on both families.

c. Purchase Marriage (क्रय विवाह / Bapla)

• The groom pays a bride price to the bride’s family.
• Common in many tribal communities.

d. Widow Remarriage (विधवा विवाह)

• Socially accepted among most tribes.
• A widow can remarry, usually within the same community.

e. Sindoor Daan Marriage

• Groom applies sindoor (vermilion) to the bride’s forehead.
• A simple and symbolic form of marriage.

f. Residence with Bride’s Family

• The groom may reside in the bride’s house post-marriage.
• Common among the Santhal tribe.

g. Initiative Marriage (नीर बोलोक विवाह – Munda Tribe)

• The girl initiates marriage by approaching the groom’s home.
• Symbolizes freedom and choice.

h. Poor Girl Marriage (Santhal Tradition)

• For economically weaker girls, simplified and less ceremonial marriages are conducted.

2. Tribal Festivals of Jharkhand

Each tribal community celebrates its own unique set of festivals, often tied to agriculture, nature worship, and ancestral spirits.

Festivals by Tribe:

Santal Tribe

• Major Festivals: Sarhul, Erok, Hariar, Sohrai, Janthar, Bhagsim, Baha

Uraon Tribe

• Major Festivals: Khaddi, Hariyari, Ban Gadi, Karma, Sohrai, Chandi, Maghe, Fagu, Jatra
• Also Celebrates: Dussehra, Diwali, Chhath, Holi, Ramnavami

Munda Tribe

• Major Festivals: Jomnama, Batoli, Sarhul, Karam, Sohrai, Baru Puja, Fagu, Magh

Ho Tribe

• Major Festivals: Maghi, Baha, Damuri, Horo, Jomna, Kolom, Batoli

Sauriya Pahariya

• Major Festivals: Gangi Adaya, Punu Adaya, Osra Adaya, Karra Puja, Saliyani Puja

Mal Pahariya

• Major Festivals: Biche Adaya, Gangi Adaya, Ghanghra Puja, Maghi

Bhumij Tribe

• Major Festivals: Chait Puja, Dhula Puja, Gram Thakur Puja, Kali Puja, Gorai Thakur Puja, Karam Puja

Kharia Tribe

• Major Festivals: Giding/Bodolerang Puja, Ponomosor Puja, Pitru Puja, Bhanda Puja, Dorho Dubbo Puja,
  Jankor (Sarhul), Bandai (Kartik Purnima), Kadleta, Jodhem (Nawakhani), Dimtang Puja

Kharwar Tribe

• Major Festivals: Dussehra, Chhath, Holi, Diwali, Mahavir Jhanda, Karam, Sarhul, Nawakhani

Mahli Tribe

• Major Festivals: Surji Puja, Mansa Puja, Chhath, Durga Puja, Holi, Diwali, Sankranti (Dusu)

Lohra Tribe

• Major Festivals: Phagua, Sohrai, Vishwakarma Puja, Holi, Diwali, Chhath

Bedia Tribe

• Major Festivals: Dussehra, Chhath, Sohrai, Sarhul, Jitiya, Diwali

Cheek Baraik Tribe

• Major Festivals: Bada Pahadi, Suryahi, Devi Mai, Sarhul, Sohrai, Karam

Gond Tribe

• Worships: Farasa Pen, Matiya, Budhadev, and other ancestral deities

Chero Tribe

• Major Festivals: Durga Puja, Kali Puja, Chhath, Sohrai, Holi

Kora Tribe

• Major Festivals: Bageshwar, Bhagwati Mai, Kali Mai, Nawakhani, Sohrai

Korwa Tribe

• Worships: Pat Devta, Gram Devta
• Major Festivals: Mati Puja

Karmali Tribe

• Major Festivals: Sarhul, Karam, Durga Puja, Sohrai, Nawakhani, Diwali, Holi, Chhath

Parhiya Tribe

• Major Festivals: Dharti Puja, Karam, Sarhul, Sohrai

Godait Tribe

• Worships: Devi Mai, Purubiya, Mati

Binjhia Tribe

• Major Festivals: Vindhyavasini Devi, Jagannath, Chardi Devi, Gram Shri, Holi, Jitiya, Dussehra,
  Karam, Sarhul, Rath Yatra, Janishikar, Diwali, Kartik, Sohrai

Asur Tribe

• Worships: Singbonga and Marang Bonga
• Major Festivals: Sohrai, Sarhul, Hariyari, Nawakhani, Kothadeli, Sarhi Kutsi

Birhor Tribe

• Worships: Kando Bonga, Ora Bonga, Haparam Bonga, Tanda Bonga

Birjia Tribe

• Worships: Singbonga, Marangburu
• Major Festivals: Sohrai, Sarhul, Phagua, Ashadhi

Sabar Tribe

• Major Festivals: Kali Puja, Mansa Puja, Durga Puja, Mahavir Jhanda

Bathudi Tribe

• Major Festivals: Rasa Purnima, Sarol Puja, Ashadhi Puja, Dhuliya Puja, Sheetla Puja, Makar Sankranti, Bada Puja

Banjara Tribe

• Worships: Banjari Devi

Baiga Tribe

• Major Festivals: Dussehra, Chhath, Holi, Diwali, Mahavir Jhanda, Nawakhani

Kisan (Farmer Tribe)

• Major Festivals: Kali Puja, Phagua, Nawakhani, Karam, Jitiya, Sohrai, Sarhul, Magh

Khond Tribe

• Major Festivals: Sarhul, Sohrai, Jitiya, Karam, Dussehra, Diwali, Nawakhani, Fagu, Ramnavami

Kawar Tribe

• Major Festivals: Khunt Puja (Ashadh), and other Hindu-Sanatani festivals

Kol Tribe

• Worships: Singbonga
• Also Celebrates: Durga Puja, Kali Puja

3. Languages of Jharkhand

Jharkhand is home to a rich tapestry of languages that reflect its diverse tribal and regional identities.

a. Indo-Aryan Languages (Regional):

• Nagpuri: Ranchi, Lohardaga, Gumla
• Panchpargania: Bundu, Tamar, Adki
• Kurmali: Silli, Ramgarh, Seraikela, East Singhbhum
• Khortha: Hazaribagh, Chatra, Koderma
• Magahi: Dhanbad, Bokaro, Giridih
• Angika: Deoghar, Dumka, Jamtara, Godda, Pakur, Sahibganj
• Bhojpuri: Palamu, Garhwa, Latehar
• Others: Khirwari, Kawarasi, Paroisa (Latehar area)

b. Dravidian Language Group (Tribal):

• Kurukh: Spoken by Uraon tribe
• Kharia: Spoken by Kharia tribe
• Malto: Spoken by Sauria Pahariya
• Korwa: Spoken by Korwa tribe
• Gondi: Spoken by Gond tribe

c. Austroasiatic / Munda Language Group (Tribal):

• Languages Spoken by Tribes:
  • Bhumij
  • Birhor
  • Birjia
  • Chero
  • Ho
  • Kora
  • Korwa
  • Mahli
  • Munda
  • Santhal
  • Sabar

Read more about Jharkhand Culture:
https://jharkhandexam.in/jharkhand-a-complete-study/